would, in most parts of the Holy Land, do more to supply the information still required than years of learned research or volumes of keen controversy.

Some may think it strange that the geography of Palestine should still be incomplete, and that its archæological treasures should not have been exhausted years ago. The country is small-not quite the size of Wales; and its atmosphere is so transparent, that from almost every prominent peak in its central range of mountains the eye can trace its outmost borders. It has been visited by thousands of travellers. Hundreds of books have been written upon it. Its explorers have not been wanting in courage, perseverance, learning, or literary skill. Why, then, has it not been fully explored long ere this? The reasons will be obvious to any one who has made the country and its history subjects of study. The topics which require investigation are numerous and widely different in character. To prosecute any one of them successfully, a long course of special training is needed. Biblical geography and antiquities, natural history, geology, the manners and customs of primeval races, must all be familiar to those who would thoroughly explore Palestine. A knowledge of the modern language is also essential; and in addition to all, the explorer must have time at his disposal, for a hurried ramble can accomplish little. The painstaking Biblical geographer is often amused at the summary manner in which a passing voyager, nowadays, is accustomed to set aside the carefully-weighed decisions of the profoundest scholar and most laborious investigator, and to substitute some crude theory of his own. Men, and women too, of this class, seem to imagine that the moment they set foot in Palestine they become qualified then and there to dogmatize on difficult points of sacred criticism, topography, and even theology. We have generally found that the confidence with which they propound their views bears an inverse ratio to their knowledge of the subject. It cannot be too widely proclaimed, or too strenuously affirmed, that long, patient, systematic research must be expended on each department, and

exploration of Biblical geography. No one man can overtake all the work; nor can individual effort, however enthusiastic and accomplished the promoter, and however munificent the expenditure, ever expect fully to cultivate, much less to exhaust the field.

There is another reason why Palestine has not yet been fully explored. All parts of the country are not safe; and in no part of it is the solitary traveller free from annoyance and interruption, especially if he attempt to sketch, to measure, or to excavate. In many places, and those among the most interesting, a considerable body of armed guards is often needed to protect property and defend life. As a rule, the districts which are least known, and which therefore require the most careful examination, are the most difficult of access, and can only be explored by a determined and fully-equipped staff. We have ourselves had some sharp and painful experience of the truth of this in the remoter regions of the country.

Now that the attention of men of the highest position and influence in this and other lands has been turned to Palestine, we think it well to give a brief resumé of the results of recent explorations. To know exactly what has been done is a good preparation for future work. No time should be lost in going over old ground. All the energies of explorers ought to be directed to new objects of interest. Although our attention is to be mainly directed to the labors of the most recent travellers, yet it will render our sketch more complete if we glance at the literature of the subject in past times.

Eusebius and Jerome were the fathers of sacred geography. Their "Onomasticon" is invaluable as giving lists of Scripture places, and indicating their position. It cannot always be trusted, however, for its authors sometimes paid too much regard to tradition, and in many instances apparently depended on hearsay.

The pilgrims who visited Palestine during the middle ages added largely to our literature, though not much to our knowledge, either of the topogra phy or physical features of the country.

holy place, and an allusion to some Scripture incident, not always appropriate. They are chiefly important for the light they throw upon the rise and fluctuation of traditions. The little work of Brocardus may be mentioned as an exception. It gives a summary of what the resident monks knew of Palestine in the thirteenth century, describing with considerable fulness the natural products, the people, and the cities and districts of land. Of the many travellers and pilgrims who wrote upon Palestine between the thirteenth and seventeenth

centuries, the only one deserving special mention is Quaresmius; and his ponderous volumes are only valuable for their history of ecclesiastical tradition, and of the Latin churches and convents.t

Toward the close of the sixteenth century a change begins to appear in the writings of eastern travellers. Hitherto they had looked at the Holy Land from an ecclesiastical point of view. Sacred shrines, monkish legends and traditions, were the chief objects of interest; and the resident clergy were the chief sources of information. At this period observation began to take a wider range. Physical geography and ancient ruins were noticed, and the antiquities of the country were described, independent of any traditional sanctity. Maundrell was one of the first of the new school. His little work is a model in its way of a quaint, simple, accurate journal. He was followed in the next century by Shaws and Pococke, Van Egmond and Heyman, who contributed more than all their predecessors to illustrate the antiquities of Palestine. Hasselquist ** and Russell direct attention chiefly to natural history, thus opening up a new and most important field of inquiry;

while Volney* delineates with a master's hand the moral, political, and religious condition of the country and people.

The words of the greatest of modern geographers-Carl Ritter-when introducing his sketch of the writings of travellers of the present century, are worthy of record:

"The majority of the works hitherto cited have had value rather to general scholars than to geographers; and, in order to obtain even single grains of gold, it has often been necessary for me to pull to pieces great heaps nineteenth century there is a great change. of rubbish. But with the opening of the The amount of geographical material becomes then overwhelmingly abundant, and the facts which have been elicited (although repeated, it may be, again and again) are so embarrassingly numerous, that to examine them all requires an extent of time, and an amount of strength so great, as to cause one to almost succumb and retire from the task."†

He

Seetzen was the first in the field. was sent to the East on a scientific mission; and in the dress and under the name of a Muslem he explored a region, hitherto unvisited, east of the Jordan and round the Dead Sea, copying inscriptions, examining antiquities, and collecting specimens of natural history. Though the disguise he assumed and the dangers he was exposed to were unfavorable to scientific research, and eventually led to his death by poison, he yet amassed a large amount of valuable information. Ali Bey, a contemporary of Seetzen, who also, though a Spaniard, travelled as a Mohammedan, furnishes some interesting descriptions of the Mosques of Hebron and Jerusalem, which were, until very lately, inaccessi

ble to Christians. Recent researches

have tended largely to confirm his narratives.§

But by far the most distinguished and successful of those travellers who, in the beginning of this century, visited Palestine, was John Lewis Burckhardt. Em

* "Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte." Paris, 1787. +"Comparative Geography of Palestine," vol. ii. p. 60.

The works of Seetzen were published in a complete form only nine years ago, under the title, "Reisen durch Syrien, Palästina," etc. Berlin,

1854-9.

"Travels in Morocco, Egypt, Arabia, Syria," etc. London: 1816.

ployed by " The Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa," he went to Syria, in 1809. While studying the language and habits of the people, he made several journeys through those parts of Palestine which had been least frequented by European travellers. He spent little time west of the Jordan; but he explored the greater part of the country east of that river. He visited the old cities of Bashan; he penetrated the wild and wonderful province of Lejah, the Argob of the Hebrews, and Trachonitis of the Greeks; he traversed the mountains of Gilead, surveying Gerasa and Ammon; he journeyed along the Plateau of Moab by Heshbon and Rabbath to Kerak; he proceeded through Edom, and was the first in modern times to enter the rockcity of Petra. For accuracy, industry, perseverance, courage, and enterprise, Burckhardt has never been surpassed. When we consider the difficulties, the hardships, and the dangers to which he was exposed, we cannot but be amazed at his success. He was always alone; he was often compelled to travel on foot as a pilgrim or a pauper; he was constantly watched by hostile eyes; in some of the most interesting spots, he could not venture to produce pencil or paper, or even to appear impressed with the magnificent remains of ancient art around him; he was frequently plundered, and sometimes stripped of nearly every article of dress; yet he took notes of distances and angles; he recorded the names of towns, villages, provinces, and tribes; he copied inscriptions, drew plans of cities, described minute details of architecture, and gave a graphic outLine of the physical features of the region through which he passed. All that could be done by heroic daring, unflagging zeal, and enthusiastic enterprise, was done by Burckhardt. His journal, though simple, unassuming, and defec tive in style, is one long romance of real life. But almost every page of the narrative proves that a thorough scientific exploration of Palestine cannot be effected in such a way. The best evidence that could be given of this fact is an extract from his own account of the greatest of his discoveries:

"I was particularly desirous," he says, "of visiting Wady Mousa (Petra), of the antiqui

ties of which I had heard the country people speak in terms of great admiration.

The road from Shobak to Akaba, which is tolerably good, and might easily be reneast of Wady Mousa; and to have quitted it, dered practicable even to artillery, lies to the out of mere curiosity to see the Wady, would have looked very suspicious in the eyes of the Arabs; I therefore pretended to have made a vow to slaughter a goat in honor of Haroun (Aaron), whose tomb I knew was situated at the extremity of the valley; and by this stratagem I thought that I should have the means of seeing the valley on my nothing to oppose; the dread of drawing way to the tomb. To this my guide had upon himself, by resistance, the wrath of Haroun completely silenced him.

...

"I hired a guide at Eldjy to conduct me to Haroun's tomb, and paid him with a pair of old horse-shoes. He carried the goat, and gave me a skin of water to carry, as he knew that there was no water in the Wady below. In following the rivulet of Eldjy westwards, the valley soon narrows again; and it is here that the antiquities of Wady Mousa begin. Of these I regret that I am not able to give a very complete account; but I knew well the character of the people around me; I was without protection in the midst of a desert where no traveller had ever before been seen;

and a close examination of these works of the infidels, as they are called, would have excited suspicions that I was a magician in search of treasures; I should, at least, have been detained and prevented from prosecuting my journey to Egypt, and in all probability should have been stripped of the little money which I possessed, and, what was infinitely more valuable to me, of my journal

book."

"In my way I entered several sepulchres, to the surprise of my guide; but when he saw me turn out of the footpath towards the Kaszr, he exclaimed: 'I see now clearly that you are an infidel, who have some particular business amongst the ruins of the city of your forefathers; but depend upon it that we shall not suffer you to take out a single they are in our territory and belong to us." of all the treasures hidden therein, for para I replied that it was mere curiosity which prompted me to look at the ancient works, and that I had no other view in coming here than to sacrifice to Haroun; but he was not easily persuaded, and I did not think it prudent to irritate him by too close an inspection of the palace, as it might have led him found treasures, which might have led to a to declare, on our return, his belief that I had search of my person and to the detection of my journal, which would most certainly have been taken from me, as a book of magic.'

"Travels in Syria," pp. 419, 421, 428.

The year 1838 may be regarded as the commencement of a new era in Biblical geography and Palestine exploration. Dr. Robinson, after nearly twenty years of preparatory studies in history, philology, and sacred criticism, then entered upon his eastern researches. In addition to great literary acquirements, he was an accurate observer, and a calm and patient investigator. He was accompanied, too, in all his journeys, by Dr. Eli Smith, who was himself already known as a distinguished traveller, and a master of the Arabic language.

The researches of Robinson and Smith were confined to Western Palestine, and they did not overtake it all. Large districts of Sharon, Philistia, Southern Judæa, and the Jordan valley were not entered; and even in the central regions of Samaria and Galilee, some important places were omitted. Wherever they went, however, they all but exhausted the historical topography. Some captious critics attempt to make light of Robinson's labors and discoveries. The more brilliant superficialities of certain English travellers find greater favor in their eyes. But the geographers of Germany have formed a juster estimate. Such men as Raumer, Rödiger, Olshausen, Delitzsch, and Ritter, bear testimony to the transcendent merits of the "Biblical Researches ;" and they are cordially seconded by those whose long residence in the East, and devotion to geographical and Biblical studies, have qualified them for forming an intelligent opinion. We entirely concur in the words of Ritter:

"The superficial and not seldom bitter criticism which has fallen upon him from prelatical England and from Catholic France, and the unworthy efforts which have been made in those two countries to undermine the results gained by the distinguished American, are in strong contrast with the thorough and impartial reviews of his work which have appeared in Germany. Such assaults would never have been made by men who stopped to consider what were the fundamental principles of Robinson's method of investigation; they are such as would be impracticable in many pilgrimages to the Holy Land; but in one whose object was confessedly scientific they are only to be spoken of highly, and are to be used as the correct standard of measuring all the works on

He

The north-eastern part of Palestine was penetrated in 1853 by Mr. Porter, who described its remarkable old cities and strange physical structure. † was followed in 1858 by Mr. Cyril Graham, who opened up a new and most interesting field in the interior of the Syrian desert, covered with ruins and Himyaritic inscriptions; and who was the first to reach the city of Beth-gamul, and to traverse the eastern section of the plain of Moab. At Edrei, Mr. Porter well-nigh paid for his enterprise with his life; and Mr. Graham encountered at every stage dangers from which most men would have recoiled. Owing to these circumstances, their explorations were not so thorough as they might otherwise have been. The same regions were also in part traversed subsequently by M. Rey, an accomplished French savant, whose photographs and plans are valuable; § and by Herr Wetzstein, Prussian Consul at Damascus. The latter followed closely in the footsteps of some of his predecessors, and availed himself largely (and without acknowledgment so far as we have been able to discover) of their descriptions and surveys, their books and their instruments. But, with the exception of a few legends and traditions gleaned from native chiefs, he added little to our knowledge of those remarkable regions. A thorough survey of the ancient kingdom of Bashan is still needed. Its great stone cities, the work apparently of primeval ages and races; the splendid remains of Greek temples, of Roman theatres and castles,

of churches and mosques; and the extraordinary physical conformation of its extinct craters and lava fields-present attractions to the antiquary, the architect, and the geologist, in some respects greater than those of any other province of Palestine.

The researches of Robinson and Smith in Western Palestine, begun in 1838, and completed during a second visit in 1852, have been followed up by a large number of earnest and accomplished travellers. Among these, Dean Stanley occupies a distinguished place. He did not deviate much from the beaten path of tourists and pilgrims, nor did he aim at original discovery; but his artistic eye, his keen appreciation of the adaptation of historic incidents to the physical character of the scenes amid which they were enacted, and perhaps more than all, the beauty and freshness and graphic clearness of his style, have contributed in a greater degree to popularize the study of Biblical geography than any writings in our language. Still the thorough student will often rise disappointed from a perusal of Stanley's brilliant pictures of eastern scenery; that exact scientific information of which he is in search is not to be found there. Stanley is a poet rather than a critic-an artist rather than a geographer. His desire to present a perfect picture-vivid in coloring, complete in every detail-frequently enlists the imagination, where reason and observation should alone have place.

The researches of Tobler in and around Jerusalem and Bethlehem † present a marked contrast to the works of the preceding writer. He is patient, minute, and matter-of-fact. His acquaintance with the literature of eastern travels is very extensive. No book or article appears to have escaped him; and he discusses every theory and His works are thus dull suggestion. and somewhat prolix; but there is a large amount of information in them which amply repays perusal. His explorations of the western declivities of the Judæan hills, as given in his Third Journey, are more thorough than any

"Topographie von sal Jeruem und Seinen Umgebungen." Berlín, 1853-4.

other. No brilliant discoveries rewarded his patient labors; none of the great vexed questions of sacred geography were solved by him. He has been content with humbler work. He has described every little wady and fountain, and has examined with the minuteness of an anatomist, every insignificant village and tower. Unfortunately, too, he is impatient with all who cannot look at the country from his exact standpoint, or pursue their investigations precisely after his model. His brusque and hasty critiques on books are therefore of little value.

Van de Velde visited Palestine as an artist and surveyor. His sketches* are beautiful, and in general accurate. His descriptions of scenery, especially among the wooded ranges of Samaria, Galilee, and Carmel, are sometimes admirable. With the eye of an artist he has caught the peculiarities of outline and color. His surveys are also exceedingly valuable. With much care and patient labor he traversed Upper Galilee, the eastern and southern slopes of Samaria and Judah, and portions of Philistia and Sharon. He was thus able to delineate tracts of country hitherto almost unknown, and to construct a map far exceeding in completeness and precision any that has hitherto appeared. But Van de Velde's surveys still fell far short of what was required. They were not trigonometrical.

he says, "I was guided by the character of "In the choice of a surveying instrument," my intended survey. Chronometers, sextant or theodolite were out of the question, as I had neither time nor intention for astronomical observations. pentage, with two levels, cross-threaded plunging telescope, and vertical semicircle with nonius, seemed to me to be the instrument best adapted for my purpose.

The Boussole d'Ar

A theodolite is useful only when the surveywhen staffs or beacons can be placed on the or is properly assisted by fellow-laborers, tops of mountains, or on the roofs of houses, and when the angles between these can thus be observed with all the accuracy required for a proper triangulation. But, laboring as I was, without assistance, and without being able to put up beacons, often compelled to content myself with the bearing of the middle of a village, a theodolite would in my case have been out of place."†