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In the atmosphere of the Revolution Rosseau's principles began to flourish. It soon became evident that the best safeguard of liberty is education, and it was assumed that the child belongs to the state. Schools were established; and the organization of a vast system of education was begun.

Here was the second crisis in European education and it brought forth its manPestalozzi. What Rousseau was to the aristocracy, Pestalozzi proved for the people. Rousseau contended that the monastic learning of the Jesuits was selfish, misdirected, deriving its inspiration from the past instead of the future; Pestalozzi argued that the safety of the republic depends upon the education of the people. His greatness came through his love for children, his self-sacrifice, and his natural instinct of a teacher. His love for the people and his zeal for popular education was so intense that it led him to ignore the details necessary to his success as a practical teacher. His intuitions of the truth were wonderful; but he could not demonstrate them practically. His teaching was a continuous experiment; and instead of practicing after experimenting, he theorized. His doctrine, "Develop the child from what is within," is the keynote of education today. His characteristic want of purpose is illustrated by one of his maxims, "Children should be developed; dogs are trained." Naturally his school failed; but his inspiration that he left is a heritage for which the world will never cease its gratitude.

A generation later Froebel began his work of organizing into a system the intuitions of Pestalozzi. He saw the necessity of method and discipline, and with a self-confidence hitherto unknown he placed his theory to practical test. Rousseau was a philosopher; Pestalozzi, an educator; but Froebel was a teacher. He believed in the development of individuality and his central idea was unity -the parallel development of all the faculties.

He contended that play develops the complete child, and upon this principle he established the kindergarten. Observation, construction, and personality were the general centers around which his system was formed. Manual training that a little later was introduced into Finland and Sweden as sloyd and from which the present accumulating tide of manual training in our public

schools took its origin, began in the use of his famous "gifts" in the kindergarten.

Froebel, however, was not a clear and fluent writer. The writings of German philosophers are often mystical at best; and it was at this fortunate period that England's greatest novelist appeared. All the philosophical wisdom of the richest and most remarkable period in history, collected, unpublished, waiting the touch of the master hand! Indeed it was an opportunity to be envied by the literary world. To say that Dickens was an unintentional educator is ridiculous. It would be no greater folly to assert that Shakespeare's dramas were aimless and without design, or that the prophecies of Isaiah were accidental. How well Froebel and Dickens accomplished each his marvelous work it is hoped that the teachers of Indiana during the school year will to some degree at least realize and appreciate.

SYSTEMATIC METHODOLOGY.
WILLIAM H. WILEY.

"Methodology" is a conservative statement of the science and the art of teaching. It is full of helpful suggestions, but should not be used as a device to relieve the teacher from special preparation for daily work.

In the introduction, the claim is made that "pedagogy will submit to as great a degree of order as will any other of the applied sciences." Our knowledge of methods becomes rational through a study of the mind and the nature of truth. Then will the teaching of all subjects be practically compassed by one comprehensive plan. "Only individuals exist, while generalizations are merely contrivances of man."

On page 9, a clear distinction is made concerning the peculiarities of the school studies. It will be of great service to the student to get accurate definitions of principle, method and device. The six declarations found on pages 12 and 13 outline the scope of the work, and are emphasized by the explanation following. The relation of pedagogy to the other sciences closes the chapter.

The mind is active at all times, and a "conventional list" of faculties has been assigned to it. A faculty indicates capacity to do something definite and distinct. The

mind, then, has as many "faculties" as there are kinds of work. Another view shows intellect, sensibility, and will. Considering these somewhat in detail, there results the table shown on page 21.

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The chapter on self-consciousness scribes how this power of the mind may be developed to a high state of perfection, beginning with the immature and unsteady movements of the child. Here is opened for the teacher a wide field for the exercise of patience.

The power of perception, based on seeing and questioning, is strongly manifested in the young child, and may be further strengthened by careful training. The fully enlightened mind insures a “discriminating perceptive power"-the basis of the best progress of man. In this movement, it will be of immense advantage to recognize the difference between original and acquired perceptions. "Every faculty is capable of its best cultivation during the time of its activity." Hence, among other expedients which will readily suggest themselves to the thoughtful teacher, give good heed to the directions for aiding perception.

Without the ability to remember, no man could live other than in the almost infinitely small present. The achievements of all would be practically the same. A dead level of uniformity would everywhere prevail. But the effects at least of our experiences are never lost, and the ability to call up and recognize them enlarges and enriches our lives. In the effort, then, to mould the characters of our pupils, attention may properly be given to the quotation from Horace Mann, as well as to the memory aids noted in connection therewith.

While memory reproduces individual experiences, imagination creates out of these experiences new products. The quality and value of these products depend upon the fulness of the mind. Care should be constantly exercised that imagination, whether receptive or creative, be not developed out of proportion to the judgment, nor allowed to take the place of persevering endeavor, nor to become responsive to evil influences. This may all be reasonably sure of attainment by guarding the perceptions of the pupils. by keeping their minds engaged with worthy objects of thought, by discouraging moodi

ness, and by emphasizing purity of thought as a basis of manly action. These desirable results are most fully assured in that mind which is open to every avenue of information, and well supplied with models of proper creative exercises. Finally, thought consists in "the power of comparing, assorting, and arranging one's fund of ideas-of classifying these, and comprehending the truths revealed in such classifications." Three steps are manifest in the process of thinking-conceiving, judging, and reasoning; and two kinds of reasoning are recognized-inductive and deductive. These may be greatly facilitated by training to exactness of perceptions and expression, by broadening the child's vocabulary, by proper questioning, by constant comparison, by omitting no step in the process of thinking, and by avoiding hasty inductive inferences.

SECOND INSTITUTE.

DICKENS AS AN EDUCATOR. GEORGE H. TAPY, SUPERINTENDENT WHitley COUNTY SCHOOLS, COLUMBIA CITY. "Now, Mum, with respections to this boy!"

-Pumblechook.

Dickens was an educator in the broadest sense. He was not only a reformer of school methods, but in his copious writings he sought to remedy the evils with which every human institution in England was blighted. If it is true that real worth in men is brought out best by the difficulties which they overcome, the world certainly has been enriched by the poverty of Dickens's youth. The misery and neglect of his early life fitted him as the champion of the poor. When a mere child he was placed upon his own resources by his father's entanglements in the English courts of law; and afterwards he painted a vivid picture of abuse of chancery in Bleak House. At the age of ten he was apprenticed in a factory; and later he opposed child-labor in Oliver Twist. He was lodged with a reduced old lady who boarded children; and all unknown to her she began to sit for Mrs. Pipchin. Sundays he visited his father in prison; and from that gloomy source received inspiration to depict the horrors of prison-life in

Little Dorrit and Tale of Two Cities. For a time he was homeless and friendless in the streets of London; and he enlisted the world's undying sympathy for Kit and Smike and Oliver Twist and Poor Jo and Pip and the Marchioness. Is it strange that he should be drawn by the resistless current of Froebel's philosophy of the Child? Is it strange that he should herald Froebel's discovery of the new world of childhood?

Froebel's philosophy was not merely a code of school management. It was not a system of petty methods, but a philosophy of man in his relation to the world in which he lives. Unity is the basic thought from which he derives and to which he again reduces every principle; unity between mind and things, and unity among the mental faculties themselves. The first determines what the child shall study; the second, the order or method of procedure. From the relation existing among the faculties themselves he concludes that the cultivation of feeling is the essential. Not because the sensibilities in themselves are most important, but because the training of intellect and will depends upon them. Evidently this principle impressed Dickens forcefully. As Froebel taught that the development of the child must begin with the cultivation of his feeling, so Dickens realized that intense feeling against the existing evils in education would insure their reforın. A scientific treatise on pedagogy will be read by the few who are already interested in the subject; Lut a novel embodying these principles in its characters will arouse the sympathy of the public.

Here the harmony of Froebel and Dickens is apparent. Froebel's philosophy, for example, deduces that in genuine instruction necessity should call forth freedom; inexoralle laws should cultivate self-control. He insists that unreasoning coercion brings forth hatred with its consequences. Dickens gives us Smike with his pitiful story of neglect and abuse, his yearning for sympathy, his terror and hatred for Squeers, his distrust and flight, and his abuse of body and mind that led to imbecility and death. Froebel teaches that capricious restraint makes dishonesty and crime. Dickens acquaints us with Tom Gradgrind whose heartless imposition on a self-sacrificing sis

ter, whose intrigues of theft and deceit we will never forget. Froebel teaches that selfactivity is the basis of all proper education. Dickens brings into the world David Copperfield, whose trials are intensified by the contrast of a loving mother and the cold repressive Miss Murdstone.

The criticism has been made that Dickens exaggerates. It has been said that his characters are so extremely overdrawn that they are no longer true to life. There is a sense in which this is true; in fact his position as an artist must depend to a degree upon the truth of the criticism. It must be admitted that Dickens's characters are not always as real as we should wish. His people are often a personified characteristic, rather than men and women with endless human possibilities. For example, Pecksniff is always a hypocrite; never for a moment is he anything else. The bombastic Micawber never wearies of his rapid transitions from elation to despondency. Mark Tapley is forever jolly, and Mr. Dombey has not been known to relax so much as a muscle. Real people, like the king in "Hamlet" who was a thorough rascal yet a provident, far-sighted, competent king, are capable of a wider range of human possibilities.

But Dickens wrote for a purpose. He was a reformer as well as an artist; and all reformers have been extremists. He wrote for the England of his day; and his very deficiencies, though tainting his art somewhat in the light of the microscopic criticism of today, made him popular and gave him the power that resulted in the educational movements of his time. As an artist he certainly conformed with Aristotle's definition, that all art should preserve the type and yet enroble it. Science, philosophy, is universal; but art is selective as well. The painter does not paint every leaf on the tree, but he places upon canvas his impressions made by that particular attitude selected from the infinite possibilities that the subject may assume. What in Dickens is called exaggeration is really selection. He chose the particular human characteristic that was suited to his purpose and personified it. Like a painter reducing the product of his art to the simplest strokes, giving it an air of unstudied, clever carelessness, so Dickens reduces his characters to their simplest form.

Two artists looking upon a landscape have never painted the same picture. Another writer would certainly have drawn another picture of the same Quilp. Another writer might produce an Esther more consistent and a Newman Noggs less omnipresent. He might give us a Little Nell not wholly an angel, a Louisa who does not suddenly become a philosopher, a Mrs. Gamp who could occasionally weary of her fictitious friend. But when we think of the England for which Dickens wrote, the magnitude of reforms he contemplated, and the world he created and peopled with fifteen-hundredfifty-six characters to work out these reforms, we turn to the great novelist and give him the homage of our unbounded admiration.

CHAPTER VII.

It is a well established maxim that all our knowledge of material things takes its rise in the senses. Our ideas of color must come through the eye; of sound, through the ear; of tactile qualities, through the touch, and so on through the list of bodily sensations. In addition to this outward activity of sensation there is also an intellectual and moral activity awakened called sentiment. "Look upon the rainbow and praise Him that made it." It is the nature of the child to experience more pleasure from the purely sensory, but at the same time inward sentiments are being gradually formed through the outward senses. The relationship between this purely sensory and the inward sentiment is close and it forms the basis for the study of ethics.

The variety of activity possible to man depends entirely upon his physical composition.

The author makes clear that children may be taught ethics only through the approach of bodily sensations. These sensations sometimes produce pleasure and at other times its opposite, pain.

The lawful activity of the soul, we may safely assume, was designed by its Creator to be attended by pleasure; and the entire influence of all things around it was equally designed to bring pleasure. But evil exists; why and how, we do not know, but both pleasure and pain are consequently experi

enced by man. They vary through all degrees of intensity, from the faintest flush of satisfaction to the brightness of ecstatic joy, and from the thinnest cloud of discontent to the stormiest violence of grief and agony.

CHAPTER VIII.

"He who is firm in the will moulds the world to himself."-Goethe.

We speak of man as having intellect, sensibility and will. But man as an efficient agent is essentially will. Whatever may be his intellectual attainments or his capacity for feeling, if he is deficient in will-power he is like an engine without steam, or a watch without a mainspring. The will is the dynamo of the soul, the source of motor energy. And yet the will is not something apart from the soul; it is rather an all important part of the soul. It rules the sensibilities by selecting the objects which shall be allowed to address them. In the same way it rules the intelligence by choosing its objects, and by directing and intensifying the attention. An act of will, choice, volition, in its highest and most proper form at least, involves the elements of freedom. It is "that condition which is brought about by an implicit obedience to all just law." If, for example, we suppose the orange which we have determined to take, not to be our own, but another's, who refuses us his permission to take it, and if we still determine to take it by stealth or by violence, we discover in our choice another class of elements. First we discover that such a choice involves freedom. We would not think of saying that we were compelled to take the orange. We are conscious that in every such act we could take or forbear taking; we could choose or refuse. Accordingly we ac knowledge our responsibility for the act. To deny this element of freedom in many at least of our choices is to belie the testimony of our own consciousness; it is to contradict the universal testimony of unbiased men.

By a motive is to be understood the obiect of the will in its action. In other words, it is that in respect to which the will acts. Motives are of two classes-external and internal.

CHAPTER IX. None of the psychologists classify attention as a separate mental faculty, yet all agree that it is an essential function to clear thinking and to the formation of correct impressions.

Professor Baldwin remarks that "we have not one attention, but many." For present purposes we might classify attention into two general classes-voluntary and non-voluntary. By the first we mean when all the faculties are directed or concentrated on the subject before the mind for consideration,

and by the latter that half-minded or loose desultory method so often seen in teacher and pupil. A close study of animals will show that their attention is formed by their varied habits of life. The horse conducts most of his mental processes through his ears, the rabbit and many others by smell. Some men are visual-minded, others auditory and still others tactile. The recitation is the place where the best attention should be secured, and here the teacher will find his severest test. Dr. E. E. White claims that class teaching is a "lost art."

PERSONAL AND EDUCATIONAL.

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Prof. W. A. Beane has been chosen principal of the Ligonier high school. scholastic preparation and his successful experience will be appreciated by Supt. W. C. Palmer and the board of education.

Alva O. Neal has resigned the principalship of the Franklin high school to accept a similar position at Madison, Ind. He has been very successful, and is regarded as an excellent teacher of Latin and sciences.

John A. Hill has resigned the superintendency of the Portland schools to accept the principalship of the Logansport high school at an increased salary. Hale Bradt becomes his successor at Portland, and is considered very competent.

Miss Anna Baker, who for the past three years has been instructor of history and English in the Mount Vernon high school, has accepted the position as teacher of history and French in the high school of Anaconda, Montana.

J. M. Callahan, elected to the chair of History in the University of West Virginia, will continue his work on diplomatic history which has been so favorably received. He will be remembered by his many co-workers in Indiana most kindly and all will rejoice at his recent election.

O. H. Blossom, who has been principal of the Rockville high school for the past year, has been promoted to the superintendency there because of the election of Mr. J. F. Thornton as supervising principal in the Indianapolis schools. The latter has had charge of the Rockville schools for six years.

The purchase of a new automobile by Prof. Geo. W. Worley, superintendent of the Kosciusko county schools, has attracted much attention at Winona Lake. He held a very successful county teachers' institute there, and is regarded very favorably as a member of the Indiana State Board of Education.

Prof. Joseph T. Giles, who has been principal of the Alexandria high school for several years, has been chosen principal of the Marion high school. He is a graduate of

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