ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.-VII. THE ORGAN OF SMELL. In the preceding articles on the organs of sight and hearing it was remarked that while the sensations excited through their agency were so different, the external causes which operated on the eye and ear respectively were not dissimilar. Rapid vibrations, propagated by bodies themselves in violent but otherwise unnoticed vibration, are conveyed through intervening media for great, and, in the case of light, unlimited distances, by waves which are capable of indicating the direction from which to our animal than to our intellectual life, and the appetites which arise from a desire to gratify these senses have always been considered to be less refined and more sensual than those which pertain to the senses of sight and hearing. It is true that a spurious delicacy and refinement of the sense of smell have caused the wealthier classes in times of high civilisation to delight in costly and rare essences and scents; but the extensive use of these has been the characteristic of effeminate races, and of times when civilisation, in its highest sense, had begun to succumb to luxury. When Rome boasted of her 1. VERTICAL SECTION OF HUMAN HEAD, SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE PASSAGES FOR AIR AND FOOD. II. FRAMEWORK OF THE NOSE. III. MUSCLES OF THE NOSE. IV. SEPTUM OF THE NOSE AND ITS NERVES. Ref. to Nos. in Figs.-I. 1, upper turbinated bone; 2, middle do. ; 3, lower do. ; 4, hole leading to the canal which drains the eye; 5, Eustachian hole; 6, palate; 7, uvula; 8, epiglottis; 9, pharynx; 10, larynx; 11, cricoid cartilage; 12, thyroid cartilage; 13, cavity of the mouth. II. 1, part of upper jaw bone; 2, nose bone; 3, upper side cartilage; 4, lower do.; 5, cellular tissue. III. 1, pyramidal muscle of the nose; 2, muscle to lift the side cartilages; 3, compressor of the nose; 4, front dilator of the nostril; 5, small compressor of the nostril; 6, hind dilator of the nostril; 7, muscle to pull down the side cartilages. IV. 1, nerve of the lobe of nose; 2, olfactory lobe; 3, nerves of the septum; 4, nerve of palate. they proceed. These vibrations, therefore, can inform the mind concerning objects far removed from its instrument, the body, with an accuracy which makes us scorn the idea that we can be deceived in that which our eyes have seen and our ears heard. Through these avenues the human mind extends itself, till it touches, and by the aid of reason may be said to grasp, the universe; and the highest powers of the mind are employed in interpreting the messages brought to us by light and Bound. In marked contrast to these are the remaining senses of which we have to write-namely, those of smell, taste, and touch. These senses are excited by material particles applied directly to those parts of the body which can take note of their peculiar qualities, and hence they are far less necessarily con VOL. I. costly perfumes, she had almost ceased from the prouder boast of being mistress of the world; and the more manly tone of modern and western society has decided between Hotspur and the fop, to the prejudice of the latter. Matter or material substances exist in three forms-the solid, liquid, and gaseous; and almost all substances can be made to assume each of these forms. Thus ice may be transformed into water and into steam. When the particles of matter hang together so closely and rigidly that they will not move over one another without the application of force, they form a solid. When the particles hang together so loosely that they will move over and round each other with the slightest force, so that they can scarcely be said to hang together at all, the substance is called a liquid. When the particles not only do 15 not hang together, but exert a force to fly off from one another, the substance they form is called a gas. The sense of touch, strictly and properly defined—that is, excluding the sensation of heat and of resistance-has to do with solids. The sense of taste has to do with liquids only, as nothing is sapid which is not liquid or capable of being dissolved. The sense of smell occupies itself with gases; for these alone can gain access to the organ, or cause the sensation of smell. Lest the reader should suppose this statement opposed to the testimony of his experience, from the well-known fact that solids, such as cedarwood, camphor, and musk, excite the sensation of smell, while ordinary scents are preserved and carried about in a liquid form, it must be explained that these substances contain volatile essential principles, which, on free exposure to the air, are slowly given off in a state of vapour. Some solids give off particles of their substance in a state of vapour without first becoming liquid, as is ordinarily the case. Thus snow, which coats the earth in winter, will diminish daily, even though the air is frosty, and there is no melting process going on. In other cases, as in cedar-wood, oils naturally volatile seem to be long entangled in the solid matter, and but slowly rendered to the air; but their odoriferous power is so great that very small portions of them produce strong perfumes. This is sometimes truly wonderful. Dr. Carpenter states that a grain of musk may be freely exposed to the air for ten years, during which time it perfumes the whole surrounding air; yet when weighed, there is no perceptible loss observed. Matters which exhale odorous emanations are detected at a great distance, from the tendency of gases to pass through and diffuse themselves equably throughout all other gases. Thus, though there be but a very small escape of coal-gas in one part of the room, it soon announces itself to the nose in every corner of the apartment. This is a faculty peculiar to gases, and produces many interesting results, which, however, cannot now be dwelt upon. The final cause for which the sense of smell is given to the higher animals-i.e., to beasts, birds, and reptiles-is primarily to warn them against receiving into the lungs and stomach noxious matters, and secondarily to guide them in the search for wholesome air and food. As a rule, to which, however, there are many exceptions, nauseous smells are associated with noxious gases, and that food which gives off a pleasant aroma is of a nature, and in a condition, to supply good nutriment. The bulk of the atmosphere consists of inodorous gases, admirably mixed so as to suit the purposes of respiration, and the main products of vegetable life are nutritive and bland; but small quantities of destructive effluvia and of deadly poisons are no uncommon things in nature, and unless some kind of quarantine were exercised on air and food, the system could not be maintained in health. True, therefore, to its office of sanitary inspector, the organ of smell holds a position at the entrance of the passages for air and food. In order to appreciate its office it is necessary to understand the relation of these passages to one another. This is best done by a reference to the illustration. The largest figure represents the nose chamber of the left side; the hollow of the mouth below it; the pharynx, or channel for food, running down towards the stomach on the left side (of the figure); and the larynx, or channel of the air, when pursuing its course to the lungs, parallel to it, on the right-hand side, as they would appear if the head were cut in two with the downward stroke of a sharp, resistless knife, made as near to the middle plane as possible, yet so as to be on the left of the upright partition between the two nose-chambers. The ordinary course of the air, when no food is being swallowed, is upward through the nostril, then horizontally through the lower part of the nose-chambers, then downward and forward behind the soft palate, entering the hole immediately below the part marked as the " epiglottis," and so on to the lungs. The simpler course of the food is horizontally through the mouth, and then vertically downward. If the reader has understood the engraving, he will see that the air and food passages cross one another; or, perhaps, it makes it more clear to say that the air passage enters the food canal from above, and passes out again below and in front of it. This is a singular arrangement, and open, one would have said, to the obvious objection that the food might get into the lungs, where it is not only not wanted, but could not be for a moment endured. This catastrophe is, however, provided against by the act of swallowing, in which the soft palate closes the air entrance above, and the epiglottis is bent down, while the sides of the hole below are so contracted beneath its overhanging and protecting hood, that the food passes over it, and the drink on each side of it, without danger of their making an entrance into the larynx. It will be seen that the effluvium from food not only rises into the nasal organ when it is presented to the mouth, but passes to it, also, after it has been introduced into the mouth, so that the nose is an effective guard to this entrance, as well as to that which it more immediately occupies. The external protecting framework, or nose, covers in the nasal chambers in front, and, on account of its oblique direction, overhangs the orifices, which are further defended from intrusive solids by a number of stiff hairs. At the upper part, or roof of the nose, this framework is of bone, because there no flexibility is required, but towards the point it is composed of cartilages, which are more elastic, and which can also move in relation to one another, while the outer and lower sides of the orifices are composed of yet more bendable cellular tissue. These wings of the nose can play up and down, and to and from, the central partition by the action of muscles, so as to enlarge, contract, or slightly alter the direction of the openings; but the framework is, nevertheless, stiff enough to keep the nostrils moderately distended while in a state of rest. Stretching horizontally backward from the nose are the nasal chambers, divided from one another by a plain partition, which is bony behind and gristly in front, and they pass under the chamber of the brain and over the cavity of the mouth, to open backward over the throat. Solid floors of bone divide this second storey of the head from the upper and lower rooms, and bones also wall in the right and left sides. These walls, however, are not smooth and plain like the central partition, but have three bony projections one above the other, which are called turbinated bones, because they are curled upon themselves like scrolls, the first convex surface of the scroll being directed inwards. These turbinated bones stretch inwards, nearly reaching the plain partition, and thus divide each lateral chamber, into three horizontal passages, called the upper, middle, and lower meatuses. All the interior of the chambers is covered with a membrane, which is very thick and pulpy on the scroll bones, the roof of the chamber, and central partition. This membrane is peculiar in that it secretes a slimy mucus, it is very vascular, and so contains much blood, and the ultimate fibres of the nerve of smell lose themselves in its substance. The nervous apparatus of smell on each side arises from under the brain by three roots; it is in the shape of a little round horizontal bar of brain matter, ending in a bulb, and it lies in a groove of the soft brain above, and of the hard bone beneath, being separated from its fellow by a crest of bone. These bulbs being placed in the brain-case, send down, from all along their course, through many holes in the bones on which they lie, nervous cords, which divide and subdivide, and run, some to the vertical central partition, some to the top scroll-bone, and some to the roof of the chamber. Their distribution, of course, indicates where the sense of smell resides, that is, not in the main channel of the air, which passes along the floor of the passage, but in the upper part of the chamber. Hence, when we want to smell anything, we take means to get the gas driven upward into the upper part of the nose. This is effected by contracting the nostrils, and drawing the air suddenly and sharply in, so that it is directed upwards instead of along the floor of the passage. It has been remarked that the membrane of the nose is very full of blood-vessels, and this is important, because the presence of much warm blood, distributed over a surface purposely folded to give it a greater extent, has a tendency to warm the cold air as it passes through the complicated channels before it is introduced into the lungs. That cold air, introduced through the nose, instead of through the mouth, is less likely to be injurious, is so far recognised, that respirators are used by delicate persons in cold air, while it is not thought necessary thus to protect the nose. There are curious connections between the nasal chambers and the hollows in many of the bones of the face and head, which are analogous to the air cavities of birds' bones. The nose has also another office, in that it serves as a sewer for the eye. Two little ducts from the inner corner of the eye join and form a tube, which, after passing through a bony canal, delivers its drainage into the lower meatus of the nose by a small orifice, shown in the engraving. Hence, violent blowing of the nose is often resorted to in order to clear the eye from | bably with the verb to be and the preposition by denoting the dust and tears. So far as concerns ourselves, the use of the olfactory organ is rather to teach us what to avoid than what to seek, and the pleasures of smell are rather incidental to other healthful conditions than much prized on their own account; yet the varied fragrance of a thousand flowers, so delicately diffused as not to pall the sense, or to surcharge the pure air, is no small addition to the delights of the garden and the country. If, however, we endeavour to imprison these odours, and make them our own, they are nearly always suggestive of a sickly effeminacy, and have called down sneers on their possessors. Thus, Cowper writes "His better hand, more busy, gives the nose and Tennyson "His essences turned the live air sick;" and again Shakespeare "He was perfumed like a milliner." LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-VIII. PREFIXES (continued). Apo, of Greek origin, from; as apostle, from the Greek ато (pronounced ap'-o), from, and σTEAλw (pronounced stel'-lo), I send; that is, a person sent from one to another, a messenger. Apo has the force of our English prefix un, as in uncover. This is its exact import in the word apocalypse, a revelation, from the Greek aо, and каλνята (pronounced ka-lupe'-to), onceal; that is, according to the Latin, an unveiling; and according to the Greek, an uncovering. "O for that warning voice which he who saw Th' apocalypse, heard cry in heaven aloud."-Milton. active power or agent, as a prefix, performs the part of an intensive, and increases, sometimes in a bad sense, the inherent import of a word; e.g., beloved, bedaub, besmear, bepraise. In other cases it seems to do little more than aid in forming words, as an adverb out of an adjective; as behind (hind, hinder), before, below, beneath. The adverb betimes (early) is made up of by and time, bytime; that is, in time. "He that goes out betimes in the morning is more like to dispatch his journey than he that lingers till the day be spent."-Bishop Hall. By means also, near, as "Stand by me." "And as he (Jesus) passed by, he saw Levi" (Mark ii. 14). Hence the phrase by and by denoted immediately, as may be seen in Mark vi. 25, in which, and in other passages of Scripture, it is the representation of a Greek word which signifies straightway, forthwith. The repetition of the by may have had emphasis for its object. Hence is explained the word by-stander, that is, one who stands near. At present, by and by seems in conversation to intimate some little distance of time from the actual moment. Bene, a prefix of Latin origin (from bonus, good; bene, well), is found in union with words of Latin origin; thus with facio, I do, and its parts facere, factum (in combination a may pass into i), it forms benefaction, benefit, beneficial, beneficent; so in union with volo, I am willing, it forms benevolent. Hence, one who is with dico, I say (dicere, dictum), bene forms benediction, and benevolent is one who wishes well; and one who is beneficent is one who does well; a benediction is a good word, a blessing, and a benefaction is a good deed, a gift. The opposite prefix is the illustrated in these words, where, as in other instances, the old Latin male (pronounced ma'-le), ill or evil. The contrast is well spelling is retained, as offering so many historical facts "The kyng, willing to show that this benefit was to hym much acceptable, and not worthy to be put in oblivion, called this grant of money a benevolence, notwithstanding that many with grudge and malevolence gave great summes toward the new foude (found) benevolence.”—Hall, "Edward IV." Arch (ch sounded like k), of Greek origin (from apxn, pronounced ar-ke, a beginning), in the forms arch, arche, and archy, denotes the origin, the head, and hence government. It is the second syllable in monarch, monarchy; and as the letter which in Greek represents the ch is pronounced like k, arch thus introduces a Greek pronunciation into our tongue. Hence you may learn the error which pronounces architect (from apxn, first, or head, and TEKTOV, pronounced teck'-ton, a maker or builder), as if its arch was pronounced like the monosyllabic word arch;tioned, was in a great measure remedied by the Romans in the time of that is, the arch in a building. Bi, in the forms of bi and bis, of Latin origin (bis, twice), has in English the force of two or twice; biped (pes, Latin, a foot), two-footed, biscuit (cuire, French, to cook), twice-cooked. Besides a type and an antitype, theology recognises an archetype, or original type, an original mould or model, in which, in virtue of which, and after the likeness of which, all created beings were formed, as was taught by the Greek philosopher Plato. "There were other objects of the mind, universal, eternal, imutable, which they called original ideas, all originally contained in one archet pal mind or understanding, and from thence participated by aferior minds and souls."-Cudworth. This word arch (from apxn) is found also pronounced in the crdinary English manner, as in archbishop-that is, a chief bishop, the chief bishop of a province. In its signification of chief it is used also to denote something questionable, bad, or Inmorous. "Doggett thanked me, and after his comic manner spoke his request with so arch a leer that I promised," etc.-Tatler. ་ *Come, tell us honestly, Frank,' said the squire with his usual rates, suppose the church, your present mistress, drest in lawn sleves, on one hand, and Miss Sophia, with no lawn about her, on the ether, which would you be for?'"-Goldsmith. Avto, of Greek origin, equivalent to self, is found in autocrat, from the Greek autos (pronounced aw'-tos), one's self, and pa (pronounced krat'-e-a), power, government, one who governs of lumself and by himself; hence autocracy is arbitrary power, despotism. "The divine will is absolute; it is its own reason; it is both the producer and the ground of all its acts. It moves not by the external impulse, or inclination of objects, but determines itself by an absolute lucracy."-South, "The inconvenience attending the form of the year above menJulius Caesar, who added one day every fourth year; which (from the place of its insertion, viz., after the sixth of the calends of March) was called bissextile or leap-year."-Priestly, on History. Cata, of Greek origin (kara, pronounced kat'-a, down), properly denotes motion in a downward direction, and appears in the word cataract (from the Greek karа and parow, pronounced ras'-so, I strike or dash), which, according to its derivation, signifies a breaking-down; that is, of the rock which leads to a origin, as in cataclysm (from the Greek kaтakλvσμos, pronounced downfall of water. This prefix is found in other words of Greek kat-a-kluse-mos, a deluge, from the verb KатakλU(w, pronounced kat-a-klu'-zo, to inundate), a term applied to the deluge. eight feet in height, and from two to five in breadth, extending to an "The catacombs are subterranean streets or galleries from four to immense and almost unknown length, and branching out into various walks under the city of Rome."-Eustace, "Italy.” Cent, of Latin origin, from centum, a hundred, is found in centenary, a hundred or hundredth; centuplo, a hundred-fold; centurion, a commander of a hundred soldiers in the Roman army. The old Saxon word hundredor may be compared with centurion. 'Hundredors, aldermen, magistrates, etc."-Spelman. The import of hundredor or hundreder may be learnt from the following words, describing the ancient civil division of England for the purpose of government: "As ten families of freeholders made up a town or tithing (a tenth), so ten tithings composed a superior division, called a hundred, as consisting of ten times ten families."-Blackstone, “Commentaries.” Circum, of Latin origin (Latin, circus, a circle or ring), signifies around, as in circumstances (from circum, and the Latin verb sto, Ba, of Saxon origin, in the forms be and by, connected pro- I stand), literally the things which stand around you; what has been called "a man's surroundings." Circum enters into the composition of many words; e.g., circumnavigation, circumlocution, circumspect, circumscribe, etc. "The circumscription of a thing is nothing else but the determination or defining of its place."—More, "Soul." Cis, of Latin origin, signifying on this side of (Rome being considered the centre), is found in Cisalpine, this side of the Alps, in opposition to Transalpine, on the other side of the Alps. Gallia Cisalpina was what we call Lombardy; Gallia Transalpina was Gaul or France. Co, of Latin origin (cum, with), occurs in the forms cog, col, Cog, as in cognate (from cog, and natus, Latin, born), born with, of the same family or kind; cog is found also in cognition (Latin cum, with, and nosco, I know), knowledge; a means of knowing, a cognisance or token. "For which cause men imagined that he gave the sunne in his full brightness for his cognisaunce or badge."-Hall, "Henry IV." Col, as in colloquial (Latin cum, with, and loquor, I speak), relating to conversation; as also in collusion (from col, and ludo, Latin, I play), a playing together; that is, to deceive. "Well, let us now leve the cloked collusion that remayned in France, and return to the open dissimulacion which now appeared in Englande."-Hall, “ Henry VI." Com, as in commemorate (from com, and memor, Latin, mindful), to keep in mind, to recall to mind; found in commensurate, comminute, commute, compact, etc. "A different spinning every different web Dyer, "Fleece." Contra, of Latin origin (contra, over against), as in contraband (bannum, low Latin, a decree, law), against the law, smuggled ; and in contradict, contrary. Contra appears in another form namely, counter, counterfeit (from counter, contre, and faire, French, to make), and in counterpane, a covering. "On which a tissue counterpane was cast, Arachné's web the same did not surpass, Wherein the story of his fortunes past In lively pictures neatly handled was." Drayton, "The Barons' Wars." De, of Latin origin, denoting motion downward, has, in combination, the following meanings, being modifications of its original import. 1. Down, as in decrease, develop (Latin, volvo, I roll); dethrone, to put down a king. "The question of dethroning or cashiering of kings will always be an extraordinary question of state, and wholly out of the law."-Burke, "French Revolution." 2. From, as in debar, to bar or keep from, to prevent. His song was all a lamentable lay, Of great unkindness, and of usage hard, Of Cythia, the lady of the sea, Which from her presence faultless him debarred "—Spenser. 3. Out, thoroughly, as in declare (de and clarus, Latin, clear), in which the prefix has the form of an intensive; to make clear, that is, by utterance. 4. Not, with a force like un in undo, reversing the sense; as, decompose, to do the opposite of composing, that is, compounding; decollation (de and collum, Latin, the neck), un-necking, that is, beheading, decorticate (de and cortex, Latin, bark), to strip off the bark; defame, etc. "Bless ye men that cursen you, preye ye for men that defamen you."-Wiclif, "Test.," Luke vi. Deca, of Greek origin, meaning ten, is found in decade, a period of ten years; in decalogue (from the Greek dexa, pronounced deck'-a, ten, and λoyos, pronounced log'-os, word, dis course), the ten words or commandments of God. Deca is found also in the Latin form of decem, as in decemviri (Latin, decem, ten, and vir, a man), the decemvirs. "By this time were the ambassadors returned with the Athenian lawes. And therefore the tribunes (at Rome) were so much the more earnest and urgent that once at length they would set on to describe and put down some lawes. And agreed it was that there should be created decemvirs above all appeale."-Holland, “Livy.” is found in demy, in semibreve, and in hemisphere. Demi, of Latin origin, in the forms demi, semi, hemi, a half, thy foot would give an excellent motion to thy gait, in a semi-circled "Thou wouldst make an absolute courtier, and the firm fixture of farthingale."-Shakespeare, "Merry Wives of Windsor." A farthingale is a hooped petticoat or gown. diameter, a measure through, from one side of the circle to the Dia, of Greek origin, through (so as to divide), is found in opposite; in diagonal (from the Greek dia, pronounced dy'-er, through, and yovia, pronounced gon'-i-er, a corner or angle), a line drawn from corner to corner; in dialogue (from dia and logos, Greek, a discourse), etc. Var. How dost, fool? Ape. Dost dialogue with thy shadow? I speak not to thee.-Shakespeare, "Timon." dia, through, and Teμvw, pronounced tem'-no, I cut), a twofoid Dia is abbreviated into di, as in dichotomy (from the Greek division, or class. "All things reported are reducible to this dichotomie: 1. the foun tain of invention; 2, the channell of relation."-Fuller, "Worthies." Dis, or dia in another form, may be rendered by the phrase, in two directions, or in different ways, as in distract (from dis and traho, I draw); to distract is to draw a person's mind in two or more directions so as to produce confusion and pain. Dis is found in these forms, namely, di, dif, div. Di, dif, etc., as in diverse (from di and versus, turned), turned in opposite directions, different, opposed "And for there is so great diversitie In English, and in writing of our tong, Dif, as in difficult, where the dif (dis) has a reversing force; difficult comes from dis and facilis; facilis is the Latin for easy, the a being changed into i, as is customary in compounds of facio; so that difficult is equivalent to our uneasy; that is, not easy. Dir (of Latin origin), as in dirge, a sacred song, so called from the beginning of the Psalm, "Dirige nos, Domine" (Direct us, O Lord), and accustomed to be sung at funerals. "The raven croaked, and hollow shrieks of owls, Ford, "Lover's Melancholy." Down, of Saxon origin, is the expression of descent; henco motion from a higher to a lower level; and hence, perhaps, the application to "the downs," that is, hillocks viewed in relation to their declivities. Down was formerly used as a verb. "The hidden beauties seemed in wait to lie, To down proud hearts that would not willing die." Sir P. Sidney, “ Arcadia,” Dun, in Saxon, signifies an elevation, a hill, and even a mountain; it may be the origin of our ton as in Broughton, a fortified height. Downs may be hence derived. In Webster's Dictionary" Downs are defined as " ridges of high land, such as lie along the coasts of Essex and Sussex, in England; hence roads in which ships lie off these hilly coasts at anchor." What is called "Salisbury Plain" is, in the parts near the city, a chalky down, famous for feeding sheep. The student will do well to continue his study of the Saxon elements of our language. For this purpose I recommend to him the poetry of Wordsworth, the simpler portions of which are pre-eminently Saxon. In order that he may have a specimen under his eyes, the opening stanzas of "Lucy Gray," by Wordsworth, are given in the following EXERCISE. 1. Parse the following stanzas : LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-XV. THE last of the four letters that may be considered as being modifications of the letter O is the letter S, examples of which are given in Copy-slips Nos. 50 and 51. That its form is based in a great measure on the letter O, may be seen by drawing a fine line through the middle of this letter diagonally from right to left, from the point in which a line drawn in the direction of the slope of the letter (as in our early copy-slips), and touching its right side, would cut the line a a, to the point in which a line, also drawn in the direction of the slope of the letter, and touching its left side, would cut the line bb. The letter s is formed in the following manner :-First, a hair-stroke is carried upwards diagonally from left to right, a little above the line a a; the pen is then brought downwards, and a curved down-stroke is made, which is turned upwards to the left when it has reached the line bb, and terminated in a dot made about midway between the lines b b, c c on the diagonal hair-line with which the letter was commenced. The letter 8 is connected with any letter that follows it by a hair-stroke carried to the right from the middle of the curved down-stroke on the right of the letter, as may be seen in Copy-slip No. 51. When s preceded by any letter which terminates in a bottom-turn, the hair-line of the bottom-turn is carried into the diagonal up-stroke with which the letter is commenced; but when the letter that precedes it does not end in a bottom-turn, as b, f, o, r, v, and w, the connecting hair-stroke is carried into the direction of the diagonal up-stroke midway between the lines a a, c c, the lower part of the diagonal up-stroke being of necessity omitted, and the letter is finished in the usual manner, as will be seen in Copy-slip No. 59. When double s occurs in any word, the first s is sometimes made by a hair-line looped above the line a a, like the top of the letter f, turned at the top to the left, and converted gradually into a thick down-stroke, which is brought downwards |