66 LESSONS IN MUSIC.-V. THE learner must be careful not to let his thoughts be confused by the different uses of the word "time" in ordinary musical language. You will meet with the phrases common time," "triple time," etc. The word "time," then, refers to the orderly recurrence of accents-the measure. In the phrases quick time," "slow time," etc., it means rate of movement, the speed with which the accents recur. And when we are requested to "keep the time," it is commonly meant that (though we may have been correct in the rate of movement, and accurate in the recurrence of accents) we have not given the exact proportionate length of each note. It is known that the swings of the same pendulum are of equal length in time, whether they are long or short in respect of the distance traversed; and that the longer the pendulum, the slower its movement; and the shorter the pendulum, the quicker its movement. This gives us the means of regulating the "rate of movement" in music as well as in clockwork. There is an instrument called a "metronome" or measure-ruler, the pendulum of which can be lengthened or shortened according to a graduated scale, so as to swing any required number of times in a minute. Let each swing of the metronome correspond with an aliquot or "pulse" of the measure, or in the quick senary measure, with the loud and medium accents. Then, if the number at which the weight is set, on the graduated scale of the metronome, be given in the signature or title of the tune, it will indicate to others the rate at which that tune should be sung. Thus, "M. 66," placed at the head of a tune, signifies that, while this tune is sung, the metronome should swing at the rate of sixty-six swings a minute; and that each aliquot of the measure should keep pace with a swing of the metronome. The larger metronome, which is kept in motion by clockwork and "ticks to every accent of the measure, costs thirty shillings and upward-that which strikes a bell on the recurrence of each stronger accent being much more expensive. The smaller metronomes, which simply oscillate without noise, are sold at four shillings and upward, and there are even cheaper instruments than these which are sold at sixpence or eightpence. Each teacher, however, and scholar too may make his string pendulum, which will answer the end very fairly. For this purpose fasten a penny or some such weight at the end of a piece of string. Then, at four inches and five-eighths from the weight, tie a double knot. Hold the string by this knot, and the weight will swing at the rate of 160 swings a minute, and make your pendulum correspond with M. 160. At 6 inches tie a single knot, and that length of pendulum will correspond with M. 138. The double knots may mark the distances most used, and the single knots those used occasionally between them. The rest of the pendalum may be constructed to the following table--S. standing for single, and D. for double knot. M. 160. = M. 138. M. 112. M. 96. 2nd D. at 9 in. = M. 80. A silk tape with the metronome figures marked at the proper distances would be preferable to the string. A lath of wood might be graduated in a similar manner, with holes punctured for the points of suspension, but it would require different distances according to its own weight. The "string pendulum" which is here recommended for its convenience of measurement by a common carpenter's rule, is slightly inaccurate, though quite near enough to the truth for all practical purposes. Some such instrument should be used by every pupil. Though it need not be always used for the exercises, it should be constantly referred to as a standard, and strict attention should be given to it in the earlier lessons. When you have learnt to sing the notes of a tune correctly, then set your metronome swinging, and practise singing the tune at the proper rate, or "in the right time." After considerable practice has taught you to keep the accents at regular and equal distances, you will only need your pendulum to give you a correct idea of the "rate of movement," before you commence singing a tune. An accomplished solo singer, or instrumentalist, need not confine himself to strict clock-time, but should vary the rate of movement according to the emotional expression. You, however, are a long way from that position, until you have established in your mind and ear a sense of time. and should carefully practise yourself with this instrument It is not an easy thing for an unpractised singer to keep an equal rate of movement throughout a tune without aid, but he must learn to do it, and we are persuaded that a careful and frequent use of the pendulum is the best means hitherto proposed for the attainment of this power; but it is customary to wish to adopt this plan, the diagrams below-explaining the recommend the practice of "beating time." To those who may method of "beating time" for the different measures-may be of use. But to many persons this is only a hindrance. Let us keep in mind that the object to be gained is—first a mental perception of equal movement, or the regular recurrence of the pulses; and secondly, a mental command, by which the muscles of the larynx are made to obey the conceptions of the mind. Both these may be gained by careful practice, discipline, and effort on the part of the pupil. If a regular movement of the muscles of the arm is easier to him than a regular movement of the muscles of the larynx, then let him use the first as a guide to the second-not otherwise. It is, however, frequently necessary, when many sing together, that the leader of the band should beat time, either with a wand, or by the movement of his own hands. The senary measure may be beaten in the same way as the binary. "To enable a number of performers," says Dr. Bryce, "to keep time, it is usual for a leader to guide them by a preconThis is called beating time. certed movement of his hand. Though it is most essential that every learner should be made to keep time-that is, follow his leader it is by no means necessary that he should at first be able to beat time, that is, act as leader. It may be said that he requires to keep time when singing alone. This is true. But if his mental conception of time cannot guide him to a correct and regular movement of the muscles of the larynx, neither will it guide him to a correct On the conand regular movement of the muscles of the arm. trary, by making him first to regulate the motion of the arm by his mental feeling of time, and then to regulate the motions of his organ of sound by that of his arm, we give him two things to do instead of one, and therefore double the chance of going wrong by the very measures we take to keep him right. There can, therefore, be no greater practical blunder in teaching than the premature attempt to teach the beating of time to those who are yet struggling with the difficulties of the scale; and, instead of being any assistance to them in keeping time, it is the most effective hindrance." Dr. Burney, in his "Dissertation on the Music of the Ancients," prefixed to his "General History of Music," seems to have proved satisfactorily that one of the greatest improvements of modern music is, that we have learned to keep time with less external flourishing and hammering than was necessary in ruder ages, whose music was little more than an exaggerated way of marking the feet of the poetry to which it was sung. He concludes his account of the operations of the ancient Coryphæus, or leader of a choir, in the following words: "It was not only with the feet that the ancients beat the time, but with all the fingers of the right hand upon the hollow of the left; and he who marked the time or rhythm in this manner was called 'Manu-ductor.' For this purpose they used oyster-shells and the shells of other fish, as well as the bones of animals, in beating time, as we do castanets, tabors, etc. Both Hesychius and the Scholiast of Aristophanes furnish passages VOL. I. 18 ་ : :-.fm d : I d : .fm d. NOTATION OF SLURS, REPEATS, AND EXPRESSION. a. When two or more notes are sung to the same syllable, they are said to be slurred. The slur is indicated by a stroke beneath the notes. to confirm this assertion. What a noisy and barbarous music; Or thus:- See Dr. The peculiarities of the old notation on the staff of five lines will be explained as we come to them, and at the proper period of his course our pupil will be more systematically introduced to them. He is already acquainted with most of the points relating to our "interpreting notation." They are, however, repeated below for the sake of distinctness. Observe that the notation of slurs, repeats, and expression," applies alike to both notations. NOTATION OF THE RELATIVE LENGTH OF NOTES.-As the accents recur at equal intervals of time throughout a tune, marking aliquot parts of the measure, the relative length of notes can be clearly indicated by showing what proportion of the measure each note occupies. This is done by first placing the accent marks at equal distances along the page, thus Or:- : d.d d : : : d I a d.d dd | d d. The dot after a mark of continuance shows that the pre- e. A comma signifies that the note before it fills a quarter of the time from one accent to the next. The last note in an aliquot does not require a mark after it, as the proportion left to it is sufficiently evident. Thus : d.,r: m.,fm.,r: d b. In some tunes it is required to repeat certain parts of the strain. The manner in which this is done is indicated by the following signs : d. Sometimes it is needful to indicate the manner in which that force is to be thrown in. For this purpose the following marks are used: <> denotes a swell, the voice commencing softly, becoming louder, and then closing softly. <denotes increasing force. > denotes diminishing force. I or over a note shows that it should be sung abruptly and with accent. e. The same piece of music often requires to be sung with different expression, according to the different words with which it may be used. In that case the marks of expression should be placed on the words. It is proposed that— CAPITAL LETTERS, in printing, or double lines under the word in writing, should distinguish words to be sung louder than others; that Italic letters, in printing, or a single line under the word in writing, should indicate softness; that The acute accent' should denote special abruptness and decision of voice; that A stroke above the words, in printing, a succession of little strokes over or a stroke through the word in writing, should show a heavy movement; the accents being dragged along, and the lighter ones little distinguished from the stronger; and that The grave accent' placed on the words which fall to the strong accent of the music, should indicate a spirited movement, with marked attention to accent. A slower or quicker movement may be expressed by the words slowly or quickly. The "heavy movement" mentioned above necessarily tends to slacken, as the "spirited movement" does to quicken the pace of the singer. An analysis of the markings used in the Tonic Sol-fa System has elicited the following principles, which may be of use to the student--Passages should be marked to be sung softly in which (1) any peculiarly solemn or awe-inspiring thought is expressed; (2) a change from praise to reflection, or (3) from reflection to prayer. Passages should be marked to be sung loudly which express (1) joyful praise, (2) strong desire, (3) ardent gratitude, (4) high resolve, or (5) some inspiring thought. For a much fuller development of this subject of expression (verbal and g. This mark, indicates that the note before it fills one-third musical) see the "Standard Course" of Tonic "Sol-fa Lessons," of the time from one accent to the next, thus: ds1sfmr d and the "Tonic Sol-fa Reporter," Vol. VIII. THE STANDARD SCALE.-A certain note "abont midway between the highest and the lowest that can be perceived by k. An aliquot or any part of an aliquot left unfilled indicates the ear" is fixed on by musicians as the standard of PITCH, and a pause of the voice, thus: scale is called D, the third E, the fourth F, the fifth e, the nasals, and liquids. Analogous English sounds have constituted sixth A, the seventh B, and the replicate or octave c again. the agents of the foregoing illustrations of French sounds. A note something less than half a tone higher than any one Generally, this has had reference to separate words only. But of these notes is said to be that note sharpened, as "Glet it be remembered that, to give the correct sound of a French sharp." A note something less than half a tone lower than any one of these notes is said to be that note flattened, as "B flat." M. Fetis (a well-known French writer) truly observes that "a sound cannot be altered or substituted for another without ceasing to exist. DOH (or c) sharp is no longer DOH (or c). It is a mere error so to call it, and it is one of those errors which have tended to render music obscure." But so it is called, and we must be content with this warning against the dangers of obscurity. The particular pitch assigned to this note c, and conse-jumpt-tup-pon the ground. quently to the other notes of its scale, is called "concert pitch." The moderns generally fix the sound of c as that which would be produced by 256 vibrations of a sonorous body. The accepted "concert pitch" has been gradually rising even beyond this standard within the last few years, so that Handel's music (unless we lower the key) is sung nearly a tone higher than he meant it to be. word as it stands alone, is a very different thing from giving that same French word its correct sound when it is used with other words in the formation of a sentence in reading, or a phrase in conversation. In this respect, the French language is like our own, as used in common conversation. The system of word-connections, in sentences and phrases in both languages, is nearly identical. For the purpose of illustration we will begin by giving specimens of word-connections in the English language, viz. : STANDARD SCALE. Q E C The pitch of the key-note may be given in the heading or title of a tune, thus "key A," "key G," "key Bв flat," etc. In "pitching a tune it is usual to take the upper c1 of the standard scale from the tuning-fork or the pitch-pipe to descend to the pitch-note required, and then give its sound to the syllable DOH. DOH, thus fixed, establishes the relative position of all the other notes of a tune. Suppose the "pitch-note" required is D. Then you would take c1 from the tuning-fork, and run down till you come to D, which you would "swell out" a little, and then sing the same sound to DOH, taking the "chord" afterwards. Thus: BAG: FED | : DOH ME SOH : | DOH : If you find any difficulty in singing your A B C backwards, remember that after sounding the c1 you have only to spell the Words BAG and FED. To pitch B flat, sing the c1 to the syllable SOH, and striking FAH, which will be B flat, call it DOH. The upper c1 is used in pitching because the higher sounds are found to be more distinctly and correctly appreciable by the ear. Tuning-forks can now be obtained for a shilling or eighteenpence. The wholesale price is ten shillings a dozen. We mention this to stimulate our friends to the purchase of these useful instruments. With a small-sized one in his pocket the good sol-faist is ready to take up a tune-book, and make out a tune without the need of any other instrument. After a time he will become, with a little practice to that end, quite independent even of the tuning-fork. He will soon learn to recall the pitch note cat will. Those who are studying the old notation will like to see the standard scale represented on the staff. It stands thus: C1 B A G F E D 2 My hat was on the table, is pronounced as if printed my hat woz-zon the table. I jumped upon the ground, is pronounced as if printed Not at all, is pronounced as if printed not-tat-tall. I assert a dogma, another denies it, is pronounced as if printed I assert-ta dogma, another deniez-zit, etc. These and similar word-connections occur in almost every sentence and phrase in the English language, where the continuity of sound is not broken by punctuation marks, without our being sensible of it. It is unavoidable. We are, and have been, so constantly used to it, that we notice it only when attention is called to it. It will be observed that the foregoing word-connections in the English language occur when a word ending with a consonant is immediately followed by another word commencing with a vowel. And the same exists when, in common conversation, the word following the one with a final consonant begins with a silent h, viz.:~ I was out about an hour, is pronounced as if printed I wazzout-tabout-tan-nour, etc. Word-connections in the French language also occur under circumstances exactly similar; i.e., when a word ending with a consonant immediately precedes another word commencing with a vowel or silent h. This feature, therefore, of the pronunciation of French, both in ordinary reading and common conversation, will present no great difficulty to the student. The following rules, thoroughly understood and committed to memory, will place the student beyond doubt and hesitation concerning these word-connections, and other matters pertaining to the correct, intelligible use of the French language, both in reading and conversation. I.-Pay no attention whatever to the apostrophe. II. Pronounce the pronoun elle like the English . III. The final letters ent of verbs, with which the pronouns ils and elles do or can agree, are always silent. IV. In reading poetry, ia, ie, ié, io, ion, ier, and sometimes ien, are pronounced as two syllables. V. The letters es final are pronounced like the letters ay in the English word day, except when s forms the plural of words ending in e, in which latter case es are not pronounced. VI.-Pronounce eux, oe, ou, like e mute or unaccented. VII.-Pronounce ch and sch, generally, like the letters sh in the English word fish, except the letters ch in the word yacht. VIII. The letters st final, in the words Christ and antichrist, are sounded, but they are silent in Jésus Christ. IX.--All final consonants after r are silent, except in the words Mars and ours, a bear. X.-In the word Messieurs, the final letters rs are only sounded But a man's voice, taking the c from the tuning fork, would when preceding a word beginning with a vowel. sing the scale an octave lower, thus: XI. Whenever a word ending with a consonant immediately precedes a word beginning with a vowel or silent h, the sound of the final consonant of the former word is carried to the first syllable of the latter, or to the word itself, if it be a monosyllable, just as if the latter word commenced with that consonant. This is most particularly the case if the two words are intimately connected in sense. The above rule owes its existence entirely to euphony, to subserve which almost everything else is sacrificed in the French language. Still the student must not observe it too rigidly, except in poetry. Neither in prose nor conversation does this rule hold good in the following cases, viz. :—— 1. When a harsh sound would be the consequence. 2. Whenever any punctuation mark is placed between the two words in question. XII. The letter t, in the words et (a conjunction meaning and) and cent (meaning a hundred) is never carried to the following word in pronunciation. XIII. The letter a in the word Août, the month August (pronounced oo, and not ah-o0), is not sounded. XIV. In the compound word est-il, and a few others, the t is carried to the second syllable in pronunciation. XV.—Whenever a word ending with a silent e is immediately followed by another word beginning with a vowel or h mute, the consonant preceding the silent e of the first word is carried to the next word in pronunciation; as: La France entière, as if printed la Fran-centière, and pronounced lah frank-sanh-teair. Honnête homme, as if printed honnê-tomme, and pronounced on-nay-tom. XVI. With the words ah, eh, oh, ouest (one of the points of the compass), ouf, oui, onze, onzième, pho, unième, yacht, yatagan, yole, and yucca, no final consonant of a preceding word is connected in pronunciation. Neither is any elision of the article made before any of these words. XVII.-In the phrase vers les une heure, the s final of the second word, les, is not carried to the following word, une, in pronunciation. XVIII. The word cinq is pronounced sanh whenever it comes before a consonant or an aspirated h. But before a vowel or h mute it is pronounced sanhk. XIX. The letters we have the sound of u, when they are not silent, after g and q. XX. The word dir, ten, before a consonant, is pronounced dee; before a vowel or h mute, deez; and at the end of a clause, as deess. XXI. The word sir, six, before a consonant, is pronounced see; before a vowel or h mute, seez; and at the end of a clause, 1. Connaissez-vous ce monsieur ? 2. Oui, Madame, je le connais fort bien. 3. Savez-vous de quel pays il est ? 4. Il est hongrois. 5. Parle-t-il allemand? 6. Il parle allemand, polonais, russe, suédois et danois. 7. N'est-il pas médecin? 8. Non, Monsieur, avant la révolution il était capitaine. 9. Avez-vous envie d'apprendre le russe ? 10. J'ai envie d'ap prendre le russe et le grec moderne. 11. Connaissez-vous les messieurs qui parlent à votre sœur ? 12. Je ne les connais pas. 13. Savez-vous où ils demeurent? 14. Ils demeurent chez le tapissier de votre frère. 15. N'avez-vous pas l'histoire de Louis Quatorze dans votre bibliothèque ? 16. Je n'ai ni celle de XXIV.-Divide each word naturally into syllables, as you Louis Quatorze, ni celle de Henri Quatre. 17. Avez-vous tort would in the English language. SECTION XXIX.-USE OF THE ARTICLE (continued). Il apprend le français, l'anglais, He learns French, English, German, 2. After the verb parler, the article may be omitted before an Portuguese. 3. The article is not used in French before the number which follows the name of a sovereign. This number (unless it be first and second), must be the cardinal, and not the ordinal [§ 26 (3)]. Vous avez l'histoire de Henri You have the history of Henry the d'apprendre le chinois ? 18. Je n'ai pas tort d'apprendre le EXERCISE 54. 1. Does our physician know French? 2. He knows French, English, and German. 3. Does he know the French physician? 4. He knows him very well. 5. Are you acquainted with that lady? 6. I am not acquainted with her. 7. Is she a German or a Swede ? 8. She is neither a German nor a Swede, she is a Russian. 9. Do you intend to speak to her? 10. I intend to speak to her in (en) English. 11. Does she know English? 12. She knows several languages; she speaks English, Danish, Swedish, and Hungarian. 13. Is your brother a colonel? 14. 18. No, Sir, I am a Hungarian. 19. Do you know Chinese? No, Sir, he is a captain. 15. Is your upholsterer a Dane? 16. He is not a Dane, he is a Swede. 17. Are you a Frenchman? 20. I know Chinese, Russian, and modern Greek. 21. Are you wrong to learn languages? 22. I am not wrong to learn languages. 23. Do you know the Englishman who lives at your brother's? 24. I am acquainted with him. 25. I am not INDICATIVE OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. acquainted with him. 26. Do you like books? 27. I am fond Fourth. in French preceded by un, une, a or an, unless it be qualified by 4. A noun placed in apposition with a noun or pronoun is not an adjective or determined by the following part of the sentence. Votre ami est médecin, Notre frère est avocat, 5. PRESENT OF THE APPRENDRE, to learn. J'apprends, I learn, do learn, or am learning. Tu apprends. Il apprend. Your friend is a physician. Our brother is a barrister. Your friend is a good physician. Our brother is a celebrated advocate. CONNAÎTRE, to know. Je connais, I know, or do know. Tu connais. Il connaît. Nous connaissons. SAVOIR, to know. of books. 28. Have you a desire to learn Russian? 29. I have no desire to learn Russian. 30. Have you no time? 31. Je sais, I know, or do I have but little time. 32. What do you learn? 33. We learn know. Latin, Greek, French, and German. Tu sais. 34. Do you not learn Spanish? 35. We do not learn it. 36. Have you fine flowers in your garden? 37. We have very fine flowers; we are fond of flowers. 38. Do you give them to him? 39. I give them to you. 40. Give us some? 41. Do not give us any. Il sait. Nous savons. LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.—XVIII. In the copy-slips that are given on this page, a new elementary form is brought under the reader's notice-the first of the four elementary strokes entering into the composition of the seven letters of the writing alphabet that yet remain to be considered. This stroke, which is shown separately in Copy-slips Nos. 61 and 63, enters into the formation of V, W, and b. When exhibited by itself, it may be described as a fine bottom-turn or hooked-stroke, consisting of a hair-line commenced at the line the looped form of termination is useful when the next letter happens to be e, as by making the finishing-turn larger, we are the better able to carry it into the fine up-stroke commencing at cc, which forms the loop of this letter. In Copy-slip No. 61, as our readers will perceive, the stroke that we have been describing is given with the top-and-bottom turn, to which elementary stroke it is added in order to form the letter V, the simplest of the three letters into whose composition it enters. In Copy-slip No. 63, the bottom-turn is given, to which, twice repeated, this new elementary form is added to form the letter w, while with COPY-SLIP NO. 61.-ELEMENTARY STROKES FORMING THE LETTER V. COPY-SLIP NO. 62.-THE LETTER V. COPY-SLIP NO. 63.-ELEMENTARY STROKES FORMING THE LETTERS W AND b. COPY-SLIP NO. 66. THE WORD VOW. ce, and brought downwards, like the lower half of the ordinary the modification of the bottom-turn, known as the letter 1, which bottom-turn, as far as the line b b, where it is turned to the right stands third in order in Copy-slip No. 63, it forms the letter b. and carried upwards, with a slight inclination to the left after The three letters V, W, and b, are given separately in Copyit has crossed the line cc, until it reaches the line a a. The slips Nos. 62, 64, and 65. It will be noticed that although in pen is then brought down the line again to a point about mid- exhibiting the stroke by itself it has been commenced at the way between a a and c c, to thicken it, and then turned abruptly line cc, and carried downwards and then upwards with a bottomto the right, making a small curved stroke, which completes the turn, practically it is nothing more than the extension of the elementary form. The short thickened stroke which is made fine up-stroke of the bottom-turn as far as the line a a, where by the downward course of the pen along the hair-line already it is finished in the manner already described. It should be carried up to the line a a, must have its broadest part at this remarked that the letter w is frequently made by adding this line, and taper gradually downwards until the point is reached termination to the fine up-stroke of the bottom-turn of the letter at which the curved line completing the stroke is turned to the n. The form, however, that we would recommend our readers right. Sometimes this stroke is finished with a small loop at the to adopt is given in Copy-slips Nos. 64 and 66, where w is top resembling the loop of the letter e. The method, however, formed by the addition of this termination to the fine up-stroke adopted in our copy-slips is neater and more compact, although of the second bottom-turn of the letter u. |