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Je ne connais pas celui qui me les a pris, mais je sais qu'il demeure ici. 5. Avez-vous demandé vos livres ? 6. Je les ai demandés à mon cousin. 7. Vous les a-t-il rendus ? 8. Il me les a payés. 9. Vous a-t-on volé beaucoup de fruit cette année? 10. On m'a volé des légumes, mais on ne m'a point volé de fruit. 11. Avez-vous payé votre chapeau au paysan? 12. Je ne le lui ai pas payé, je l'ai payé au chapelier. 13. À qui avez-vous demandé des renseignements? 14. J'en ai demandé au voyageur. 15. Savez-vous qui vient de frapper à la porte? C'est M. L., qui vous demande. 17. Qui avez-vous demandé? 18. J'ai demandé votre frère. 19. Votre frère a-t-il payé toutes ses dettes ? 20. Il ne les a pas encore payées, parce qu'il n'a pas reçu ses revenus. 21. Lui avez-vous payé ce que vous lui avez acheté ? 22. Je le lui ai payé. 23. Ne leur avez-vous pas payé votre loyer? 24. Je le leur ai payé. 25. Ils nous ont payé notre maison.

EXERCISE 94.

16.

1. Have you paid your landlord? 2. I have paid him my rent. 3. Have you paid him for the windows which you have broken? 4. I have paid him for them. 5. Has the hatter paid for all his hats? 6. He has not paid for them, he has bought them on credit (à crédit). 7. Do you pay what you Owe every day? 8. I pay my butcher every week. 9. Have you paid him for his meat? 10. I have paid him for it. 11. For whom did you inquire this morning? 12. I inquired for your brother. 13. Why did you not inquire for my father? 14. I know that your father is in England. 15. Has the hatter been paid for his hats? 16. He has been paid for them. 17. your money been taken from you? 18. My hat has been stolen from me. 19. Have you asked your brother for your money? 20. I have asked him for it, but he cannot return it to me. 21. Has he no money? 22. He has just paid all his debts, and he has no money left (de reste). 23. Have asked your father for money? 24. I have not asked him for any, I know that he has none. 25. From what bookseller have you bought your books? 26. I bought them from your bookseller. 27. Are you wrong to pay your debts? 28. I am right pay them. 29. Who is inquiring for me? 30. The physician is inquiring for you. 31. Who knocks? 32. Your shoemaker knocks.

Has

to

KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN FRENCH.

you

For the use of those who are studying our Lessons in French, we now give the first portion of a Key to the exercises contained in those lessons. We have deferred its commencement until the present time designedly, that we might not subject our readers to the temptation of consulting the Key until after they had written the Exercises to which it relates, and made such progress as will enable them to detect and amend any errors they may have made when beginning our course of lessons. The only way to acquire a thorough knowledge of a living language is to practise one's self in the use of it; and the best exercises will be of no service unless they are written without any other assistance than is supplied by general grammatical information. When, however, the selfteacher has thoroughly studied both lessons and exercises, it is useful for him to be able to turn to a key, such as we are now going to give him, for the purpose of comparison and the final correction of any mistakes he may not be able to perceive

himself.

It may be objected that we have given a Key to the exercises in each Lesson in Latin in the lesson that immediately follows it. It must, however, be remembered that Latin is a highly inflected language, and one which the learner will never attempt to speak; while the grammatical construction of the French language is less complicated; and that it should be the chief object of the learner to speak French; and, for this purpose, to drill himself thoroughly in the rules of which each lesson composed. To induce him to rely as much as possible on his own resources, we have, therefore, deferred commencing a Key to the Exercises in Lessons in French until the present

time.

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11. The butcher has the meat. 12. The miller has the meat, and I have the coffee. 13. Have you the water and the salt ? 14. Yes, Sir; we have the water, the salt, and the oats. 15. Have we the tea ? 16. No, Sir; the girl has the tea, the vinegar, and the salt. 17. Have I the wine ? 18. No, Madam, you have only the vinegar and the meat. 19. Have you the table? 20. Yes, Madam, I have the table. EXERCISE 2 (Vol. I., page 3).

1. Avez-vous le blé ? 2. Oui, Monsieur, j'ai le blé. 3. Qui a la viande ? 4. Le boucher a la viande et le sel. 5. A-t-il l'avoine ? 6.

Non, Madame, le cheval a l'avoine. 7. Avons-nous le blé? 8. Vous

avez le blé et la farine. 9. Qui a le sel ? 10. J'ai le sel et la viande. 11. Avons-nous le vinaigre, le thé, et le café ? 12. Non, Monsieur, le frère a le vinaigre. 13. Qui a le cheval? 14. Le boulanger a le cheval. 15. Avons-nous le livre et la plume? 16. Non, Made17. Avez-vous la moiselle, la fille a la plume, et le meunier a le livre. table, Monsieur ? 19. 18. Non, Monsieur, j'ai seulement le livre. Qui a la table ? 20. Nous avons la table, la plume, et le livre. EXERCISE 3 (Vol. I., page 3).

Have we the horse's oats ?

1. Have you the gold watch? 2. Yes, Madam, I have the gold watch and the silk hat. 3. Sir, have you the tailor's book? 4. No, Sir, I have the physician's book. 5. Have they the baker's bread ? 6. They have the baker's bread and the miller's flour. 7. Have you the silver pencil-case? 8. Yes, Sir, we have the silver pencil-case. 9. 10. You have the horse's oats and hay. 11. Who has the carpenter's cloth coat ? 12. The shoemaker has the tailor's silk hat. 13. The tailor has the shoemaker's leather shoe. 14. Have you the wooden table ? 15. Yes, Sir, I have the carpenter's wooden table. 16. Have they the silver knife? 17. They have the silver knife. 18. The physician's brother has the silver watch. 19. The shoemaker's sister has the silk dress. 20. Has she the leather shoe? 21. No, Madam, she has the satin shoe. 22. Have we the woollen stocking? 23. No, Sir, you have the tailor's silk stocking. 24. Who has the cotton stocking? 25. The physician has the cotton stocking. 26. The lady has the satin shoe of the baker's sister.

ESSAYS ON LIFE AND DUTY.—V.

CHARITY.

CHARACTER can never be said to be complete without the presence of the element of charity. So many false ideas, however, are current concerning the nature of charity, that it may be well to preface this article by reminding the reader that charity is not the synonym for a mere mawkish sentimentality. To be charitable, according to some theorists, is to be indifferent to the distinction between honour and dishonour, good and evil, and to treat even the most flagrant faults with palliative excuse and toleration. Charity, like each of the virtues, must exist in harmony with others, or it loses its claim to be considered a virtue. A charity which could exist apart from truth, righteousness, and justice, would only serve to put a premium upon vice and crime. What then, it may be asked at the outset, is charity? It is the wise exercise of the affectionate side of our nature; it is the letting love operate as a motive power in all our varied relationships, as citizens and members of a commonwealth in which each ought to consider the best interests of the other. This can never be done by mere expediency, nor from a sense of utilitarian morality; it must be the result of innate beneficence or kindness. Charity refers to our estimates, as well as our actions; it considers the weakness incidental to its own nature, and is therefore lenient in its judgment about others, not as blind to their faults, but as looking

to the frailties of our common humanity, and finding in the errors of others counterparts of the shortcomings which exist well as a private weal, and feels the claim of the outside world in ourselves. Charity considers that there is a common weal, as upon its powers of help and sympathy: thus realising that with all the distinctions which are evidently inherent in the system of things, such as rich and poor, high and low, there is yet a brotherhood of humanity, in which the stronger are expected to help the weaker. Charity considers the terrible exigencies of life into which many are born, and in looking at the lamentable phases of character continually brought to light, it is ever on the alert to educate the masses and to ameliorate the condition of their dwellings. Charity, moreover, is no spasmodic exercise of generosity, no sudden surprise of human nature into an act of startling goodness, but it is the spirit of the life, that which underlies all our judgments of and our actions towards others. Charity, thus interpreted, is the co-existence and exercise of

the affectionate with the intellectual and judicial faculties of our nature.

No character can claim to be complete without charity. It is possible to let one side of our nature overtop the other, and thus human nature, when love is eliminated, becomes hard, stern, and severe. Some men may be gigantic in intelligence, and dwarfish in affection, but they are monstrosities in human nature. Only the equable development of all our powers can be commensurate with our possibilities, and therefore our responsibilities.

A moral science which found no room for charity would develop character very much after the Roman type-hard, stern, and unbending-such as might exist with unflinching bravery and unyielding energy, but which effectually crushes the affectionate side of human nature. Moreover, it is necessary to guard against the great mistake that charity means, in some sort, weakness of character, for there is no such inspiration to acts of self-surrender, self-denial, and self-sacrifice, as is to be found in the influence of this virtue. In proportion to its power is the diminution of that selfishness which so often merges into cowardice, and cripples the exercise of the higher virtues. To be charitable is, for the most párt, to have that consideration for others which makes us set aside the comfort or discomfort, the rest or unrest of our own lives. Charity is a virtue which needs careful culture; men are so apt to be disheartened by ingratitude and base treatment, that they tire in acts of beneficence, and sometimes they catch that cynical tone of mind which helps to make them not only indifferent to the wants of others, but misjudgers of the race. We should never form our opinions of the baseness of men from one or two specimens of wrong-doers we may meet with, or charity will receive no encouragement for its culture, and we ourselves shall lose the sweet sensation which comes from its exercise. Let it be remembered that, if we were to argue from the score, not only of utility to others, but utility to ourselves, we should commend charity, as it ministers largely to human happiness, to think well of, and to act kindly towards, those around us.

It often happens that, as nations increase in the luxuries of civilisation, they become more petrified by selfishness. There is a tendency in the eager race to be rich, or to be successful, to forget the wants and claims of others, and to become isolated from them: the fact that the poor are ever so charitable to the poor comes from this, namely, that they are not absorbed in successful ambitions for themselves.

Charity towards others in matters of opinion is much needed; the tendency of every age has been to institute some sort of inquisition or other, by which free thought may feel its penalties. Mankind have been far too ready to put gyves and shackles on the limbs of those whose opinions they disliked and scorned; and in no sphere has the exercise of charity been less experienced and more required than in the region of human judgment and opinion.

The exercise of charity towards others will prepare us for the enjoyment of it in return. There is a knowledge of ourselves which induces humility, and which, while it makes us conscious of our marvellous mistakes and errors, makes us deeply sensitive to the experiences of a charitable consideration. Most assuredly there is a punishment awaiting the uncharitable, as for the most part moral science teaches us that such vice is its own Nemesis, and that the stern and unforgiving in the end have meted out to them the same measure that they have meted out to others.

The virtue of charity is no foe to wisdom. Charity itself requires the exercise of judgment and forethought. Otherwise, charity is in no sense charity, so far as its outworking in acts of beneficence is concerned. Much as men may dislike the name of political economy, or political philosophy, it must be manifest that, were the practical workings of charity presided over by wisdom, as well as inspired by love, the blessedness of its results would be tenfold or twentyfold increased.

We have, however, kept in mind in this essay the fact that charity is a matter which affects our judgments, and criticisms of others, quite as much as our actual beneficence; and no one can claim to have mastered the first elements of moral science in any practical way, much less to have graduated in the high attainments of character, until, as a regulating faculty of the affectionate nature, Charity takes its place side by side with Justice and Truth.

1

MECHANICS.-X.

THE PULLEY.

IN the machines we have so far considered, the essential parts were rigid. It was a beam, or a spoke, or a complete wheel, or an axle we had to deal with; and if a rope was used, it was only with a view to connecting the power or resistance with these rigid parts. But it may have escaped your notice that, in using a rope for this purpose you had fallen on a veritable machine. Such is the case; a rope is a machine-a most convenient machine-which possesses the peculiar property of not only transmitting a force from one point to another in its original direction, but also sending it, very little impaired, round any number of corners, into

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Fig. 67.

a corresponding number of successive new directions. This practical advantage everybody is familiar with; nobody more than the British sailor, whose daily work consists in no small degree in sending the muscular power of his arms round all manner of corners for the benefit of the good ship he navigates.

The Pulley, the third of the mechanical powers, is the instru ment by which this object is gained in practice. In its simplest form it consists of a rope which passes round a small solid wheel which is itself mounted in a block. In theory, neither wheel

Fig. 68.

nor block are indispensable parts of the machine; the single essential is the rope, which is supposed to be perfectly flexible, and to turn round a mere point without experiencing any resistance from rubbing against it, that is, from friction.

The theory of the pulley, thus based on the suppositions of perfect flexibility and absence of friction, may be understood from the upper part of Fig. 67. Let A, B, C, D be any number (say four) of rings, representing so many points, through which a rope passes, enabling a force, P, at one end to balance a resistance, w, at the other. The flexibility being perfect, and no friction between rope and ring. P is transmitted unimpaired, and we have therefore the powe equal to the resistance, whether the rings are all fixed in posttion, or some be movable.

But in practice, the suppositions made do not hold good, neither is the rope perfectly flexible, nor the friction nothing. For the former reason each corner must be rounded off to relieve the rope from the sharp bends at A, B, C, D; and, for the latter. these rounded corners are made into small wheels, as at E, F, G. E which move round with the rope, and prevent the power being diminished by the friction that would result, were the rope allowed to slide round them. Thus the theoretical pulley in the upper part of Fig. 67 becomes the practica! one in the lower, where the rings are replaced by wheels; and though some friction remains, and default of flexibility to impair P in its transmission, we say practically, as we did before theoretically, that still the power is equal to the resistance.

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Fig. 69.

The relations of the power and resistance in the various forms and combinations of pulley can now be easily determined There is first the Single Pulley, which is of two kinds, fixed and movable; and of these in various combinations, the more com

plex forms, termed Compound Pulleys, are made. At a, Fig. 68, we have a single fixed pulley, round which a rope passes, to the extremities of which the power and resistance are applied. The rope being equally strained on both sides, these forces must be equal; but, as both pull in the same direction downwards, the strain on the beam which is their resultant is twice as much as either the power or the weight, that is, double the resistance.

Atb, in the same Fig., is the Movable Pulley, sometimes termed a "Runner." The rope attached at one end to the rafter above

Sur, a French abbreviation of super, appears in surcharge, an overcharge, an additional charge; in surcoat, an overcoat; in surtout, literally an overall (French, tout, all); in surfeit (French, faire, to do), an overdoing; that is, eating too much.

There are various degrees of strength in judgment, from the lowest surmise to notion, opinion, persuasion, and the highest assurance which we call certainty."-Search, "Light of Nature."

Syn, of Greek origin (ovv, sune, with), occurs in the forms

is thence carried downwards and round the pulley, and the syl, sym, syn; as in syllogism, symphonious, synchronous, etc. power is then applied, acting upwards, to the other end. At c is another form of this Runner, but the power is a weight, P, acting downwards, but round a smaller fixed pulley, producing ments and refute them, without any real inward knowledge of the

thus the same effect as at b. In both these the forces are parallel, and the weight is evidently double the strain on either string; whence, since the power is manifestly equal to the strain, we infer that the power is equal to half the resistance, or weight raised.

If the two portions of the rope be not parallel, as in the movable pulley represented at Fig. 69, the resistance, w, is equal and opposite to the resultant of the two equal strains on the portions of rope attached to the hook a, and turning round the fixed pulley b. The angle between these portions is bisected by the vertical line wt; and if we measure on the rope w b, a portion, wg, equal to the power, and draw from g a line, g t, perpendicular to w t, to meet that line in t, twice w t will represent the resistance.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-XIV.
DERIVATION: PREFIXES (concluded).

Soli, of Latin origin (solus, alone), is seen in soliloquy (Latin,
loquor, I speak), a speaking alone, being the only speaker; called
also a monologue; and in solifidian (Latin, fides, faith), one who
supposes faith, and not works, alone necessary to justification.
"Such is the persuasion of the Solifidians, that all religion consists
in believing aright."-Hammond.

Step, of Saxon origin, from steopan, to bereave, whence the Anglo-Saxon, steop-cild, step-child, a child that is deprived of a parent. From this use the term steop or step was applied to relatives that stood in a similar position, and thus we have steopmodor, a step-mother; steop-dohter, a step-daughter; steop-faeder, a step-father; steop-sunn, step-son.

Sub, in Latin, under, as in subterranean (Latin, terra, the earth), under the earth; submersion (Latin, mergo, I dip), dipping; subscribe (Latin, scribo, I write), to write the name under a document. Sub may denote an inferior degree of the quality of the adjective to which it is prefixed, as sub-acid; sub-deacon, an under-deacon (Greek, diakovos, di-ak'-on-os, a servant). Sub becomes sue in succession, succumb, etc.; suf, in sufficient, suffragan, etc.; sug, in suggest, suggestion, etc.; sum, in summons, etc.; sup, in support, etc.; sur, in surprise, etc.; and sus, in sustain, etc.

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"Summons is a warning to appear in court at the return of the original writ, given to the defendant by two of the sheriff's messengers, called summoners."-Blackstone, "Commentaries."

"The thing seemed not supportable to the noble prince, King Henry the Eighth."-Smith, "Commonwealth."

"This impulse is the emotion or term surprise."-Cogan, "On the Passions."

"It hopith alle things, it susteyneth alle things."-Wiclif, "Testa

ment," 1 Cor. xiii. 7.

Subter, meaning under, is sub in another form, and appears in subterfuge (Latin, fuga, flight), an evasion.

"The last is rather a subterfuge than an objection.”—More, "Immor. tality of the Soul."

Super, of Latin origin, the opposite of sub, signifies over, above, as in supernatural, above nature; supermundane, above the world; supervision (Latin, video, I see), overlooking.

"If a grammatical foundation be not laid deep at an early age, it will not often be laid in such a manner as to bear a large superstructure."

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"Men have endeavoured to transforme logick, or the art of reasoning, into a sort of mechanism, and to teach boys to syllogise, or frame argu

question."-Watts, "Logick."

"Up he rode,

Followed with acclamation and the sound Symphonious of ten thousand harps that tuned

Angelic harmonies."

Milton, "Paradise Lost." "Sensations are impressed either at the same instant of time, or in contiguous successive instants. Hence it follows that the corresponding associations are either synchronous or successive."-Belsham, “Philosophy of the Mind."

Tetra, of Greek origin (Teтpa, tet-ra, four), appears in tetragonal, four-angled; tetrameter, a line consisting of four measures or feet, and in tetrarch, properly a governor of a fourth part, a subordinate prince.

"And Eroude tetrarck herde alle thingis that weren don of him."Wiclif, "Testament" (Luke ix. 7).

Trans, in Latin, across, as in transpose, to put across from one place to another; transport, to carry over the sea.

"With transport views the airy rule his own,

And swells on an imaginary throne."-Pope.

trident (Latin, dens, a tooth), Neptune's sceptre; in trilateral Tri, of Latin origin (tres, tres, tria, three), appears in triangle; (Latin, latus, a side), three-sided, and triliteral, having three

letters, etc.

When a county is divided into three of these intermediate jurisdictions, they are called trithings. These trithings still subsist in the county of York, where, by an easy corruption, they are denominated ridings-the north, the east, and the west riding.-Blackstone, "Commentaries.”

66

Vice, of Latin origin, signifying in the place of, as in vicegerent (Latin, gero, I bear), one governing as a substitute, viceroy, or 'vice-king," see Hakluyt; also, vice-chancellor, vice-president. "In the yeare 1228, one Reginald was viceroy, or petie king of Man."Holinshed.

Vicar (Latin, vicarius), comes from vice, and so denotes one who is in the place of another, hence a "vicarious sacrifice."

"Nature, the vicare of the Almighty Lord,

That hote, colde, hevie, light, moist, and drie
Hath knit, by even number of accord,

In easie voice, began to speak and say."-Chaucer.

"Then it was devised that, by their common seal (which is the tongue of their corporation), they might appoint a deputy or vicar to do it for them."-Spelman, "On Tythes."

Viscount is made up of the same prefix-that is, vice-and the Latin word comes, a companion, in low Latin count or earl; so that viscount (pronounced vi'count) is the deputy, the lieutenant of the count or earl.

"The viscont, called either procomes or vicecomes in time past, governed in the countie under the earle, but now without any such service or office; it is also become a name of dignity next after the earle, and in degree before the baron."-Holinshed, "Description of England."

Ultra, of Latin origin (ultra, beyond), is used in ultramarine (Latin, mare, the sea), properly, beyond the sea; applied to colour, fine blue.

"Ultramarine or azure is a very light and a very sweet colour."Dryden, "On Painting."

The blue colouring matter of the lapis-lazuli, or azure-stone, is

called altramarine.

viviparous (Latin, pario, I bring forth), bearing (its young) alive. Vivi (Latin, vivus, alive) appears in vivify, to make alive; and in

"The usual distinction of animals, with respect to their manner of generation, has been into the oviparous (Latin, ovum, an egg) and viviparous kinds; or, in other words, into those that bring an egg, which is afterwards hatched into life; and those that bring forth their young alive and perfect."-Goldsmith, " Animated Nature.”

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Uanel'd is unoiled, not having received the oil of extreme unction; disappointed means not prepared. To housel is to minister the communion to one who is on his death-bed. Housel comes from the Saxon husel, the host, or sacrifice of "the sacrament of the Lord's Supper."

Un, from the Latin unus, one, is exemplified in unanimous (Latin, animus, mind), of one mind; in uniparous, bearing one at a birth; in unison (Latin, sonus, sound), one single sound; in univocal (Latin, vox, a voice), having one voice or meaning. Un, of Saxon origin, has in some measure yielded to in; thus, for the old form unperfect, we now say imperfect. Unpossible" is quite obsolete.

Under, of Saxon origin, is found in such words as undersell, underprop, undervalue, underwent. In the word understand,, the derivative or secondary meaning is very remote from its primitive; namely, to stand under. Undertaker and underwriter have, in process of time, come to have very special significations. Undertaker, originally one who took on himself a certain duty, is at present applied to persons who are entrusted with the management of funerals; and underwriters, properly signifying | those who wrote (their names) under a legal document (in Latin, subscriptor), is a word limited to persons who render themselves liable in a policy of marine insurance.

Uni, of Latin origin (unus, one), occurs in unicorn (Latin, cornu, a horn), an animal with one horn; and uniform (Latin, forma, form), having one form.

Up, of Saxon origin, is found in uphill, uphold, uplift, upspring, upstart, etc.

A summary of these prefixes arranged according to the sources whence they are derived, is presented in the following tables :1.-PREFIXES FROM THE GREEK.

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In this summary of prefixes in English, there are 41 prefixes of Greek origin, 58 of Latin origin, and 15 of Saxon origin, making in all 114 prefixes.

This statement presents some curious facts in the way of deductions. Out of 114 prefixes in English, only fifteen belong to the language of our nurseries. How largely indebted then must the English be to the Greek and the Latin; and how necessary to every student of English is some acquaintance with those languages. Let it be observed that it is not merely that in English there are ninety-nine prefixes derived from the Greek and the Latin; but these prefixes enter into combination, and form very many words, the exact meaning of which can be known by those only who are acquainted with their compound parts. Truly ours is a composite language. It is also a rich language, and has great flexibility, owing to the diverse sources whence its vocabulary comes. How poor comparatively would the language have been, but for the treasures it has derived from the classical tongues!

Since so many of our prefixes are of foreign origin, our compound words must also be to a large extent of foreign origin. Consequently monosyllables may in general be regarded as Saxon.

I have given above the Greek, the Latin, and the Saxon, as the sources whence our prefixes are derived. The French might have been added; but the French is not an original source; words derived by us from the French may in general be traced back to the Latin as their parent.

A little attention may lead the student to suspect that there is some genealogical connection between the three sources of our prefixes. By comparing particles together, he might be led to trace a resemblance between dia and dis; hemi and demi; hez and sir; hept and seven; holo and whole; in and in; en and in; non and not, etc. In reality such a genealogical connection does exist. The Greek, the Latin, and the Saxon (or Teutonic) are sister languages, being branches from the one stem called by linguists the Indo-Germanic or Indo-European stem, which comprises the Sanscrit, or the old sacred tongue of Hindostan ; the Celtic, or parent of the Gaelic; the Erse, the Latin, the Welsh, the native Irish; and the Teutonic, the parent of the Greek, the German, the Dutch, and the Saxon-English. This family of languages then extends, you see, with some exceptions, from the banks of the Ganges to the western shores of Ireland. It extends also from the North Cape to the Strait of Gibraltar. The epithet Indo-Germanic is in origin prior to the epithet Indo-European. Indo-Germanic was intended to include two classes of languages, namely, the Sanscrit (Indo) and the Ger manic (Teutonic or Saxon); but when it had been ascertained that the Celtic was a kindred tongue, a more comprehensive epithet was required, and Indo-European was formed. But Indo-European errs somewhat in excess, since some dialects spoken in Europe are not of Indian, Celtic, or Teutonic origin. That the English, as well as the Greek and Latin, is connected with the Sanscrit, may be seen by comparing together these numerals in the different tongues.

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To you there may not seem the close resemblance among these words, severally, which is obvious to the student who is aware of the changes which letters undergo in allied tongues, from laws and influences peculiar to each separate language; but surely there is enough in the tabular view just given to illustrate what I state as a fact; namely, that the languages of which specimens appear above are kindred languages. Look, for instance, at the forms through which the numeral three passes, thus: tri, treis, drei, three, tres, tri, tri.

From these statements you will see that words which are found in the Sanscrit, the Greek, and the Latin, or in the Sanscrit, the Saxon, and the Erse, may be designated IndoEuropean, inasmuch as they exist in the three great branches of

that stalk-I mean in the Sanscrit, the Teutonic.

Celtic, and the

Of these three-namely, the Sanscrit, the Celtic, and the Teutonic-the first may be considered as the most ancient tongue; the second stands next in age, and the third is the youngest.

You have been led to regard monosyllables as to a large extent of Saxon origin. But many words, commonly considered Saxon, are rather Indo-European, being found in Sanscrit, in Greek, and in Latin, or in one of these besides the modern English. Such words as know, lick, break, yoke, sit, are the common property of the Sanscrit, the Latin, the Greek, the German, and the English.

Had I space to exhibit the proofs of the relationship of these languages, I should dwell on the similarity which prevails in the modifications of number, person, case, tense, etc., which they severally undergo; but I can, in addition, do nothing more than set down in different tongues the variations of a few words of universal prevalence, which indicate a common origin.

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LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-III.

CYCLOPEAN OR PELASGIC ARCHITECTURE—EARLY MONUMENTS. AFTER the brief sketch of the origin of architecture in our last lesson (Vol. I., page 369), we must notice in proper order that system of construction, the monuments of which cover a great part of the Old World. This system had its origin among the Shemitic tribes, which at the commencement of civilisation peopled the fairest part of the globe. This early system, noted for the rudeness of its form, its stability without mortar, and the great size and irregularity of its materials, is attributed to the Pelasgians, a people originally from Upper Asia, who, according to Herodotus, spread themselves over Phoenicia and Asia Minor, and colonised Greece and Italy. Examples of this style of architecture, called Pelasgic, are found extending from the borders of Persia and Armenia to the western limits of Asia. The term "Cyclopean" is also applied to this kind of architecture, because, in Greece, these buildings of huge rough blocks of stone were fabled to be the work of the Cyclopes-a race of giants with one eye in the middle of the forehead, who laboured at the forges of Vulcan, the fire-god of the Greeks, and patron of all who wrought in iron. Crossing the Mediterranean, it spread over Greece, where the most remarkable monuments described by ancient authors, from the age of Hesiod and Homer, are traced, according to tradition, as far back as eighteen centuries before our era. This was the style of construction used in the heroic times of ancient Greece; and at a later period it was employed on certain important occasions.

The migrations of the Pelasgi carried this system into Italy, and we meet with it at every step, particularly in the central countries. Examples are also to be seen in nearly all the western islands of the Mediterranean, in the Balearic Isles, and some even on the coasts of France and Spain. In fine, by a remarkable coincidence, travellers who have drawn and described the monuments of Palenqué and Papantla, cities of Mexico destroyed long ago, and grown over by forests, exhibit constructions similar to those of the Pelasgi. The gigantic remains of the Pelasgic monuments, to this day subjected to examination by travellers, bear traces of different modes of building. Those which seem to be the most ancient are composed of blocks of

stone, or rather of rocks, so rude and so immense that Pausanias, in speaking of the walls of Tiryns, near Nauplia, in Greece, built thirty-six centuries ago, describes them thus :-" These walls are constructed of unhewn stones, and are all of such dimensions that a yoke of oxen could not shake the smallest of them. The interstices are filled up with smaller stones, which serve to unite the larger ones." These walls present the same appearance now which they did in the days of Homer and of Pausanias. They are about 25 feet thick, and about 43 feet in height. Two temples, close to each other, in the island of Gozo, near Malta, are analogous in their construction to the walls of Tiryns. They are built of immense blocks of stone, forming a sort of artificial hill, in which are placed the naves and arches of the temples; but some of the rocks bear traces of the mason's tools.

It has been proved, by careful examination, that these edifices were dedicated to the gods of Asia. To conclude: the walls of Tarragona, on the east coast of Spain, are constructed, like the preceding, of immense rocks in their natural state. The application of instruments to building, at a later period, caused the edifices of the Pelasgians to assume another form. The stones taken from quarries were cut into irregular polygons, and placed one upon another in such a manner as to make the different faces of the geometrical figures which they employed coincide, the salient angles filling up the re-entrant angles formed by two adjoining stones in a manner precisely similar to that used in the present day for building walls of Kentish ragstone or Devonshire limestone. This was the ordinary manner of building under this system of construction. It is met with from Lake Van, on the frontiers of Armenia, to the west of Italy, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles; and it is found in temples and in tombs, in public and private buildings, and in innumerable military constructions. At last, a third method presents itself in the walls of these early buildings-namely, that in which the stones are fashioned in the square form; and the buildings themselves, assuming the same form, exhibit a greater degree of civilisation, and the invention and application of more exact instruments. The walls of the ancient Mycena were built in this manner.

The continued and progressive order of these Pelasgic constructions is one of the most interesting facts in the history of the art of building-particularly when we refer them to an antiquity which goes back to the heroic time of Greece. Doubtless the gradual improvement which is to be seen in the walls constructed by this original people, does not reveal all the revolutions of this art in early antiquity; but it enables us to perceive the progress of the greater part of the civilised world, a progress which it must necessarily follow, because it is the nature of all human inventions to pass from early and rude attempts to successive periods of improvement and perfection. The Pelasgic monuments, sketched and studied at the present day, extend over a zone which, comprising the breadth of Western Asia, stretches over Greece and Central Italy; and this is not the whole of the ancient world, as we have already said, in which early monuments composed of rocks in their natural state have been seen by ancients and moderns; but they have been discovered in all the northern countries, and in Africa, from Egypt to the neighbourhood of Carthage; and we have reason to believe that in these countries, to the primitive constructions, a second period succeeded, more refined in its productions, and forming a step from the first attempts to the more perfect examples, of which we behold the numerous ruins in India, in Central Asia, in the valley of the Nile, and in the oases of the desert. These monuments of transition, so to speak, have disappeared under early and actual civilisation, and have even escaped the investigation of travellers.

FIRST REGULAR CONSTRUCTIONS, PYRAMIDS, ETC.

The Pelasgi, proceeding from the Asiatic plateaus, or tablelands, directed their steps towards the west; other Shemitic tribes marched towards the south and east, and peopled India, Persia, Assyria, and Arabia, as well as Ethiopia and Egypt. The art of these tribes, like that of the western branch, passed through a rude and primitive state, as we have shown-through the BETH-EL style, or constructions in unhewn stones. cannot be supposed that these tribes were more privileged than others, and were able, without previous attempts, to hew stones regularly, to mould and cement bricks, and to give to the union

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