export were much the same as in the preceding period; but there were some new articles of English manufacture, among which may be mentioned both gunpowder and guns. There were many opulent merchants in this period, which clearly indicates the growing extension of the commerce of the kingdom. Individuals, indeed, rose to great wealth, and sometimes to rank and power, through the successful pursuit of trade. Thus, William de la Pole, a merchant, who flourished in the time of Edward III., was, for his opulence, made chief baron of the exchequer, and a knight banneret; and his successors eventually became earls, marquises, and dukes of Suffolk, and were finally ruined by a royal alliance and a prospect of the succession to the crown. Another of the opulent commercial men of this age was Richard Whytington, who is especially famous in story. The history of Whytington's cat, however, belongs to the region of poetry and fable: he was not a poor scullion boy, but the son of sir William Whytington, knight. Through his opulence, he was thrice elected lord-mayor of London; and his almshouse at Highgate still remains, a monument of his munificence and benevolence. Commerce was not carried on in this age by regular merchants alone. Frequent mention is made in those times of trading vessels which were the property of kings, nobles, bishops, and other ecclesiastics of rank. Edward IV. made great gains by his own commercial undertakings; and William of Trumpington, abbot of St. Albans, traded extensively in herrings, for the purchasing of which he had agents at Yarmouth. Fish were exported and imported; for while herrings were sent into foreign countries, other fish were procured from Ireland in exchange for cloth, wine, ale, corn, and salt. In connexion with the subject of trade and commerce, it may be mentioned, that at the close of this period public posts for the conveyance of intelligence were first established, both in England and France. By means of posthorses, changed at every twenty miles, letters were forwarded at the rate of one hundred miles a day; but these posts were exclusively for the use of the government.

The English coins of this period, with two exceptions only, were gold and silver pieces, of the same denominations that have been already mentioned. The new coins were nobles and angels, the former worth nineteen and the latter fourteen shillings of the present money. These were much admired, both at home and abroad, for their purity and beauty.

Manners and Customs, &c.-As the country advanced in wealth, and intercourse with foreign countries became more extended, improvements of various kinds were introduced in all the accommodations of life. This was especially the case with regard to the furniture of this period. Classically snaped chairs and stools, elaborately worked tables, Arras tapestry, beds of feathers and leopards, gold swans, and silk, clocks with strings and weights, reading-desks, brass chandeliers, etc., are represented in the MSS. of this period; all which exhibit a great improvement in ancient furniture.

In the early portions of this age the extravagant fashions of dress, introduced by Richard II., underwent very little alteration. The principal change appears in the fashion of the hair, which, instead of being worn long or in natural curls, as it was from the time of the conquest, was now cropped close, except by aged or official persons, and the military. During the fifteenth century the general costume of the people appears to have been a mixture of all the fashions of the preceding century, with some few additions to their absurdities and extravagancies. The kings of this period were notorious for their love of dress and finery; and this example was naturally followed by their subjects. At the same time there was a distinction made in the materials of the dresses of the different classes. By a sumptuary law enacted in the last year of the reign of Edward IV., cloth-ofgold, or silk of a purple colour, was permitted to none but the royal family: cloth-of-gold of tissue was confined to the use of dukes; plain cloth-of-gold was appropriated to lords; velvet and damask satin were allowed for the gowns and doublets of knights; and damask or satin doublets, and camlets were assigned to esquires and gentlemen. Only noblemen were allowed to wear woollen cloth made out of England, or furs of sables; and no labourer, servant, or artificer might wear cloth which cost more than two shillings per yard. The spirit of chivalry, from various causes, rapidly declined during the fifteenth century. The few combats that occurred were commonly judicial encounters, intended to decide the truth of charges of treason, or other criminal accusations. The few tournaments held commenced with the idle splintering of lances without points, and ended in a regular number of strokes dealt with blunted swords or axes. By some, this decline in chivalry was considered foul degeneracy, and expedients were devised for its restoration; but the

growing sense of the people at large saw its decline without regret. Printing itself was made the medium of an endeavour to revive the ancient spirit of knighthood; but the effort failed: "chivalry had fulfilled its purposes in the great process of civilization, and it passed away with the occasion that called for it, and the peculiar condition of things by which it had been maintained."

Hospitality, however, the usual attendant of chivalry, still survived this change. The castles of powerful barons were still daily crowded with their numerous retainers, who were always welcome to their plentiful tables. The civil wars, indeed, made it the interest of each noble to strengthen the side he espoused, as well as to endeavour to secure his own personal safety by the maintenance of as great a crowd of retainers as he could afford. It was by this hospitality that the celebrated Warwick became "the King-Maker." It is related that thirty thousand men were daily maintained at his different manors and castles; and that while he stayed in London six oxen were usually consumed by his attendants at breakfast, while every tavern was full of his meat. The nobles of this period vied with monarchs in their establishments; for, besides their armed retainers, they had their privy-counsellors, treasurers, secretaries, chaplains, choristers, stewards, pages, mimics, jugglers, tumblers, rope-dancers, and buffoons.

At this period the two meals a day, introduced into England at the Norman conquest, were increased to four: these were breakfast, which was taken at seven o'clock in the morning; dinner at ten; supper at four in the afternoon; and liveries, which consisted of a collation taken in bed between eight and nine in the evening. The breakfast, although taken so early in the morning, was a substantial meal, arising from the fact that those who partook of it were actively employed for three hours previous. It is stated in the "Northumberland's Family Book," that the breakfast for an earl and his countess was a loaf of bread in trenchers; two manchetts, or small loaves, of the finest flour, weighing each six ounces; a quart of beer; a quart of wine; two pieces of salt fish; six baconed herrings; and four white herrings, or a dish of sprats." This was on a fast-day; but on flesh-days the fish at breakfast was exchanged for mutton or beef. Dinner, supper, and liveries were all of the same abundant and substantial character; and, from the quantity of food consumed, this period may be called "The age of gluttony." Princes,

nobles, and priests alike were devoted to good cheer: the secular clergy even pressed religion itself into the service of gormandizing, by the institution of glutton masses, which were held five times a year, in honour of the Virgin Mary. On these occasions the villagers repaired to the church, laden with provisions and liquor; and when mass had been hurried over the viands were produced, and priests and laymen addressed themselves to the feast, converting the church into a tavern; and the scene frequently ended in intemperance and riot. The staple of subsistence for the common people was joints of meat, brown coarse bread, and ale or beer; and it is remarkable that they breakfasted at eight, dined at noon, and supped at six, which were later hours than those of the nobility.

The sports of the nobility and gentry during the present period differed very little from those of the preceding age. Hunting, hawking, and mumming were still their chief amusements. With mummings, the splendid pageantries with which the English kings were occasionally received into London may be fitly classed: they were nothing but great national mummeries, on a correspondent scale of grandeur and extravagance. The theatrical exhibitions of this age, also, partook of the nature of buffoonery, mingled with licentiousness and infidelity. A taste for these exhibitions prevailed among both the higher and the lower classes, though the amusements of the inhabitants of the towns and villages were on a smaller scale than those of the nobles and citizens of the metropolis. The species of drama most in use at this period was the mystery, which was recommended and generally composed by the clergy. These mysteries were frequently formed on biblical subjects, in which a profane use was made of the word of God; but there were also secular plays, acted by itinerant buffoons, wherever they could find listeners or place.

To the sedentary sports, noticed in the last period, may now be added that of card-playing; the oldest and most favourite games with which seem to have been Trump and Primers, the latter resembling the modern game of whist. Among the active sports of the commonalty, in addition to those of running, leaping, and throwing heavy weights; wrestling, bowling, and games of ball, which were of various kinds, may be mentioned. The game of tennis seems also to have been introduced into England at this period; and

skating, with the shank-bones of sheep tied to the feet, was practised by the youth of the metropolis. Other games in use at this time were bays, base, or bars, or prisoners-bars; hood-man-blind, the same as the modern blindman's-buff; leaping the hoop; and battledore and shuttlecock. The other sports of children were similar to those of the present day.

One feature of English manners at this time reflects great disgrace on the national character; this was the practice of profane swearing. Military men were especially addicted to this evi! practice, which brought the English at large into great contempt on the Continent. It is mentioned by an historian of the reign of Henry VI., as a commendable singularity in his character, that he did not swear in common conversation, and that he reproved his ministers and officers of state for this evil habit.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE PERIOD FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VII. TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF ELIZABETH.

HENRY VII.

A.D. 1485. HENRY's first act after his victory in Bosworthfield, was to cause Edward Plantagenet, earl of Warwick, son and heir to the late duke of Clarence, who was the next heir of the house of York after the princess Elizabeth, to be conveyed to the Tower of London, and put under safe and sure custody. This done, he marched towards the capital, where he was joyfully received; and on the 30th of October, he was anointed and crowned king by Bourchier, the cardinalarchbishop. It had been stipulated by his supporters that he should marry the princess Elizabeth, the heiress of the house of York; and though, after his victory, he seemed unwilling to fulfil his engagement, yet, on receiving a petition from parliament requesting that he would marry her, he consented. The marriage between Henry and Elizabeth took place early in the year 1486, and thus the long-desired blending of the White and Red Roses was accomplished.

It was hoped that by this union an end would be put to the civil wars which had so long raged in England. Although