land? Is it distributed in large estates, or subdivided into small properties? Is it chiefly in fee, or held on long or short leases from year to year? What is its chief feature-arable, meadow, grass, or woodland? What are the respective quantities of each? What is the nature of the soil, and what distinctions are there in it? Is one kind more adapted for one species of cultivation than another, and whence is this difference derived, and by what natural causes has it been occasioned or modified?

6. Trade and Commerce.-Our information respecting a country cannot be complete without some knowledge of its trade and commerce, and the manner and the means by which they are carried on. In this respect, also, without stopping to inquire very minutely into the statistical details of the resources and means of a country, the travellers for whom we write can add much to our information by the mere record of the facts which come under their own observation. What is the nature of the trades chiefly exercised by the different classes of the population, and by different tribes, when such exist? Are they principally employed in working up the raw materials produced in their own country, or those imported from other quarters? Are they workers in metal, and whence are the metals obtained? Or are they workers in leather and similar materials? Or do they spin and weave, and what are the materials worked up in their looms—whether wool, cotton, flax, or silk— and which of them, if any, are raised in their own country, and from what other districts do they draw their supplies when requisite? Is their commerce chiefly domestic, foreign, or transit, and by whom is it carried on? What are the principal articles of im

port and export? Where do they come from, and whither are they sent? What is the medium of exchange? What progress have they made beyond the mere principle of barter? Is money used as a medium of exchange? What coins are known? Of what materials do they consist? Have the inhabitants any knowledge of bullion, paper, or bills of exchange? Have they any system of credit or bill-discounting? How is commerce conducted? What are the means of communication-water or land? If the former, what is the nature of their ships and vessels? Are they employed at sea, or on rivers or canals? What is the character of their sailors? If land, have they yet learnt the use of railroads? the roads and other tracks?

What is the nature of Are they available for for beasts of burden?

carts and waggons, or only What beasts are used-horses, mules, asses, bullocks, or camels? Which are most useful? How are the roads kept up? Are they in good or bad condition? Are the bridges well built and kept in repair? What is the ordinary rate of travelling, and the expense of carrying goods? What are the weights and measures used in the country? Are they the same in trade or commerce as in private life? Many of these questions are easily answered, and all will be found useful for one purpose or another.

Having thus gone through the different heads above alluded to, there only remains one subject on which it may not be irrelevant to make a few remarks, although there may be some question as to whether this is the proper place for its introduction. Our information respecting distant lands and their inhabitants cannot be said to be complete without some knowledge of their

past history and of the remains of antiquities still left to attest their former condition; and we therefore propose briefly pointing out to the traveller a few of the points to which his attention may be advantageously directed. In the first place, in his excursions in the country, let him carefully examine the sites and remains of ancient buildings. This identifying of ancient positions, and fixing the names of ancient cities, has not unfrequently been called comparative geography, as establishing a comparison between the ancient and modern state of things. Where the remains appear to indicate the site of a ruined city, let him carefully trace the line of the ancient walls, ascertain the position of the gates, describe or sketch their style of architecture, and state the materials of which they have been built. If the fallen fragments indicate the site of a temple or analogous building, let the traveller endeavour to obtain precise measurements of its different component parts, the length and diameter of the columns, the details of architraves, capitals, and cornices, and of whatever other features may attract his attention. Above all things, let him diligently search for inscriptions, and then carefully copy all that he may find, endeavouring as much as possible to preserve the arrangement of lines, and the precise form of the characters in which they are

written.

But other evidences of ancient art or history remain to be noticed-coins and manuscripts, and works of art. With respect to the former, the traveller cannot be too industrious in collecting all that his means allow him to procure of those which come in his way—taking care, of course, in those countries where such practices obtain, that he is not imposed upon by forgeries. Manu

scripts are of more rare occurrence, but even these may safely be collected when possible, and there is here less danger of deception than in the case of coins. With regard to works of art it is more difficult to lay down any precise rule, on account of their greater variety, as well as a certain degree of vagueness attaching to the term, and also on account of their bulk and cost. Two classes, however, may be mentioned which particularly deserve attention-statues and gems. Of the former of these, the traveller will generally be enabled only to make drawings: their size will in most cases prevent their being easily moved. Gems, on the other hand, whether cameos or intaglios, are amongst the most valuable and portable works of art which a traveller can collect. But let him beware of imposition: it is frequently and notoriously practised. With due attention to these hints, the traveller whose fate or duty may lead him to the shores of classic land, cannot fail to obtain much information which will prove not only a source of interest to himself, but will be received with satisfaction and delight by every cultivated mind on his return to his native shores, as tending to elucidate many obscure points in the history of ancient nations.

SECTION VI.

GEOLOGY.

BY CHARLES DARWIN, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

A PERSON embarked on a naval expedition, who wishes to attend to Geology, is placed in a position in some respects highly advantageous, and in others as much to the contrary. He can hardly expect during his comparatively short visits at one place, to map out the area and sequence of widely extended formations: and the most important deductions in geology must ever depend on this havi..g been c. ully executed; he must generally confine himself to isolated sections and small areas, in which, however, there can be no doubt many interesting facts may be collected. On the other hand, he is admirably situated for studying the still active causes of those changes, which, accumulated during long-continued ages, it is the object of geology to record and explain. He is borne on the ocean, from which most sedimentary formations have been deposited. During the soundings which are so frequently carried on, he is excellently placed for studying the nature of the bottom, and the distribution of the living organisms and dead remains strewed over it. Again, on sea-shores, he can watch the breakers slowly eating into the coast-cliffs, and he can examine their action