tolerant zeal. By an edict of Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, except that of Zoroaster, was severely prohibited. The temples of the Parthians and the statues of their deified monarchs were thrown down with ignominy.t The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by the Orientals to the polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks), was easily broken; the flames of persecution soon reached the more stubborn Jews and Christians;§ nor did they spare the heretics of their own nation and religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was jealous of a rival, was seconded by the despotism of Artaxerxes, who could not suffer a rebel; and the schismatics within his vast empire were soon reduced to the inconsiderable number of eighty thousand. This spirit of persecution reflects dishonour on the religion of Zoroaster; but as it was not productive of any civil commotion, it served to strengthen the new monarchy, by uniting all the various inhabitants of Persia in the bands of religious zeal.

II. Artaxerxes, by his valour and conduct, had wrested the sceptre of the east from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still remained the more difficult task of establishing throughout the vast extent of Persia, a uniform and vigorous administration. The weak indulgence of the Arsacides had resigned to their sons and brothers the principal provinces, and the greatest offices of the kingdom, in nature of hereditary possessions. The vitaxa, or eighteen most powerful satraps, were permitted to assume the regal title; and the vain pride of the monarch was delighted with a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. Even tribes of barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of Upper Asia,** within their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or

*Hyde, de Relig. Persar. c. 23, 24. D'Herbelot, Bibliothèque Orientale,-Zerdusht. Life of Zoroaster, in tom. ii. of the Zendavesta. +Compare Moses of Chorene, 1. 2, c. 74, with Ammian. Marcellin. 23, 6. Hereafter I shall make use of these passages. + Rabbi Abraham, in the Tarikh Schickard, p. 108, 109. S Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, 1. 8, c. 3. Sozomen, 1. 2, c. 1. Manes, who suffered an ignominious death, may be deemed a magian, as well as a Christian heretic. Hyde, de Religione Persar. c. 21. ** These colonies were extremely numerous. Seleucus Nicator founded thirty-nine cities, all named from himself, or some of his relations. See Appian, in Syriac. p. 124). The era of Seleucus (still in use among the eastern Chris

seldom obeyed, any superior; and the Parthian empire exhibited, under other names, a lively image of the feudal system which has since prevailed in Europe. But the active victor, at the head of a numerous and disciplined army, visited in person every province of Persia. The defeat of the boldest rebels, and the reduction of the strongest fortifications,† diffused the terror of his arms, and prepared the way for the peaceful reception of his authority. An obstinate resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but their followers were treated with lenity. A cheerful submission was rewarded with honours and riches; but the prudent Artaxerxes, suffering no person except himself to assume the title of king, abolished every intermediate power between the throne and the people. His kingdom, nearly equal in extent to modern Persia, was, on every side, bounded by the sea, or great rivers; by the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, the Oxus, and the Indus, by the Caspian sea, and the gulf of Persia.§ That country was computed to contain, in the last century, five hundred and fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about forty millions of souls.¶ tians) appears as late as the year 508 (of Christ 196) on the medals of the Greek cities within the Parthian empire. See Moyle's works, vol. i., p. 273, &c. and M. Freret, Mém. de l'Académie, tom. xix. * The modern Persians distinguish that period as the dynasty of the kings of the nations. See Plin. Hist. Nat. 6, 25. Eutychus (tom. i., p. 367, 371, 375) relates the siege of the island of Mesene in the Tigris, with some circumstances not unlike the story of Ninus and Scylla.

Agathias, 2, 164. The princes of Segestan defended their independence during many years. As romances generally transport to an ancient period the events of their own time, it is not impossible that the fabulous exploits of Rustan, prince of Segestan, may have been grafted on this real history. § We can scarcely attribute to the Persian monarchy the sea-coast of Gedrosia or Macran, which extends along the Indian ocean from cape Jask (the promontory Capella) to cape Goadel. In the time of Alexander, and probably many ages afterwards, it was thinly inhabited by a savage people of Icthyophagi, or fishermen, who knew no arts, who acknowledged no master, and who were divided by inhospitable deserts from the rest of the world. (See Arrian de Reb. Indicis). In the twelfth century, the little town of Taiz (supposed by M. d'Anville to be the Tefa of Ptolemy) was peopled and enriched by the resort of the Arabian merchants. (See Géographie Nubienne, p. 58, and D'Anville, Géographie Ancienne, tom. ii., p. 283). In the last age, the whole country was divided between three princes, one Mahometan and two idolators, who maintained their independence against the successors of Shah Abbas. (Voyages de Tavernier, part. 1, 1. 5, p. 635.) Chardin, tom. iii., c. 1-3.

If we compare the adminstration of the house of Sassan with that of the house of Sefi, the political influence of the Magian with that of the Mahometan religion, we shall probably infer, that the kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at least as great a number of cities, villages, and inhabitants. But it must likewise be confessed, that in every age the want of harbours on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of fresh water in the inland provinces, have been very unfavourable to the commerce and agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of their numbers, seem to have indulged one of the meanest, though most common artifices of national vanity.

As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxexes had triumphed over the resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the neighbouring states, who, during the long slumber of his predecessors, had insulted Persia with impunity. He obtained some victories over the wild Scythians and the effeminate Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past injuries* and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his arms. A forty years' tranquillity, the fruit of valour and moderation, had succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the period that elapsed from the accession of Marcus to the reign of Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian empires were twice engaged in war; and although the whole strength of the Arsacides contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was most commonly in favour of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted by his precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a peace at the expense of near two millions of our money: but the generals of Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected many trophies in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their exploits, the imperfect relation of which would have

* The latest of these injuries was undoubtedly inflicted by the shameless perfidy of Caracalla. Proposals of marriage with the daughter of Artabanes were made by him, and accepted by her father. Under the pretence of receiving his bride, he advanced at the head of a numerous army to the Persian capital, suddenly attacked the unsuspecting monarch, who expected to receive him as a son-in-law, and instead of nuptial festivities, created a scene of bloodshed and destruction. This is related by Herodian (lib. 4, c. 10); and a French writer, commenting on the transaction, calls it, "le modèle ou du moins l'ébauche de la St. Barthélemi de Catherine de Medicis."-SCHREITER. Dion, 1. 28, p. 1335.

unseasonably interrupted the more important series of domestic revolutions, we shall only mention the repeated calamities of the two great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon.

Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about fortyfive miles to the north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian conquests in Upper Asia. Many ages after the fall of their empire, Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a Grecian colony, arts, military virtue, and the love of freedom. The independent republic was governed by a senate of three hundred nobles; the people consisted of six hundred thousand citizens: the walls were strong, and as long as concord prevailed among the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt the power of the Parthian; but the madness of faction was sometimes provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common enemy, who was posted almost at the gates of the colony. The Parthian monarchs, like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and the imperial camp was frequently pitched in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles from Seleucia. The innumerable attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city.§ Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the Greek colony; they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian kings, yet both cities experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, with the massacre of three hundred thousand of the inhabitants, tarnished the glory of the Roman triumph. Seleucia, already exhausted by the neighbour

For the precise situation of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Modain, and Bagdad, cities often confounded with each other, see an excellent geographical tract of M. d'Anville, in the Mém. de l'Académie, tom. xxx. See also Layard's Nineveh and Babylon, pp. 472, 483, 570, &c.-ED.] Tacit. Annal. 11, 42. Plin. Hist. Nat. 6, 26. This may be inferred from Strabo, 1. 16, p. 743. § That most curious traveller, Bernier, who followed the camp of Aurengzebe from Delhi to Cashmir, describes, with great accuracy, the immense moving city. The guard of cavalry consisted of thirty-five thousand men, and that of infantry of ten thousand. It was computed that the camp contained one hundred and fifty thousand horses, mules, and elephants; fifty thousand camels; fifty thousand oxen; and between three hundred thousand and four hundred thousand persons. Almost all Delhi followed the court, whose magnificence supported its industry. Dion, 1. 71, p. 1178. Hist.

hood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently recovered its strength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor Severus. The city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended it in person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, and a rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers.* Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and to Seleucia, as one of the great capitals of the east. In summer, the monarch of Persia enjcyed at Ecbatana the cool breezes of the mountains of Media; but the mildness of the climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his winter residence.

From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or lasting benefits; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant conquests, separated from the provinces of the empire by a large tract of intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of Osrhoene was an acquisition of less splendour indeed, but of a far more solid advantage. That little estate occupied the northern and most fertile part of Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Edessa, its capital, was situated about twenty miles beyond the former of those rivers: and the inhabitants, since the time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, and Armenians.† The feeble sovereigns of Osrhoene, placed on the dangerous verge of two contending empires, were attached from inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of Rome exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under Marcus, it was judged prudent to secure some substantial pledges of their doubtful fidelity. Forts were constructed in several parts of the country, and a Roman garrison was fixed in the strong town of Nisibis. During the troubles that followed the death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene attempted

August. p. 38. Eutrop. 8. 10. Euseb. in Chronic. Quadratus (quoted in the Augustan History) attempted to vindicate the Romans, by alleging that the citizens of Seleucia had first violated their faith.

* Dion, 1. 75, p. 1263. Herodian, 1. 3, p. 120. Hist. August. p. 70. The polished citizens of Antioch called those of Edessa mixed barbarians. It was, however, some praise, that of the three dialects of the Syriac, the purest and most elegant (the Aramaan) was spoken at Edessa. This remark M. Bayer (Hist. Edess. p. 5) has borrowed from