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In Demosthenem Commentarii JOANNIS SEAGER. No.

VII. .

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In Demosthenem Commentarii JOANNIS SEAGER. No.

VIII.

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RUSSIA concluded in 1728 a treaty with China, by which the frontiers between the two empires were definitively settled, and a reciprocal commerce was established between them on a solid basis. After the perusal of this treaty, which contains nothing humiliating to Russia, we should deceive ourselves if we were to suppose that that power is regarded by China as its equal. Even in the treaty itself there is nothing that can induce us to presume that China arrogates to itself a supremacy over Russia; but if we read the description of that empire in the official geography of the Mandchoux, we shall find that the monarchy of the Czars is treated as a state that has submitted to the prince who governs the Central Empire. Even the custom by which they are to receive the ambassadors, and the Russian tribute, is there specified according to the Chinese regulation.

Diplomatists will, perhaps, reply, that as China has never received the smallest mark of submission from Russia, this ridiculous vanity of the Chinese ought to be treated with the contempt which every pretension that cannot be maintained ought to be treated. But these diplomatists would be in error, according to the Chinese, and in the eyes of Europeans capable of judging the question.

For according to the opinion prevalent with the Chinese,
VOL. XXX.
CI. JI.
NO. LIX.

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every foreign power that sends to them an embassy, recognises by such act, their submission to the Emperor.

In Chinese this act of submission is described by the words lai tchhao, "to come and render homage." This expression is generally applied to the first embassy of any power; the embassies that succeed are designated by the terms lai koung, "to come and bring tribute." If we consult the Chinese annals, we shall see, that in the 166th year of our era, the Roman Emperor Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius) sent an embassy that offered tribute to Houon-ti, of the dynasty of the Han; that in the year 284 another brought it to the Tsin, and that the same event happened in 637, and in 719. It will be found also, that Spain has submitted ever since 1576, Holland ever since 1653, and the Pope ever since 1725.

In the explanation of a map of the world, published at Peking in 1794, we read: "In the 58th year of Khian Loung (1793), the English, who are situated at the north-west extremity of the world, and who in former times had never penetrated to China, crossed the two oceans, to come and render homage to the Emperor." The second deputation of the English will be treated in the annals of China, as having brought tribute.

Thus it is seen, that the mission of an embassy is a mark of submission, and that the presents which they bring are considered as due to the Emperor; so that they are called koung, "vectigalia, tributa." Koung signifies generally, every thing that an inferior offers to a natural superior.

We are aware that many think, that for political or commercial interests we may be allowed to shut our eyes at the arrogant vanity of the Chinese, provided the embassy obtains its proposed object. We might, indeed, be induced to be of this opinion, if it were not an incontrovertible fact, that an embassy to China can never accomplish its object. The Chinese, far from negociating with the ambassadors of foreign powers, consider them as messengers come, on the behalf of their masters, to present his respects and the tribute due to his superior.

The fixed and immutable mode of treating with the Chinese governments, is that of transmitting in writing the demands to

The same ridiculous vanity prevails at Marocco: a late Emperor declared war against every European power that did not send an ambassador or a consul with a present to Tangier. These presents are considered as homage; and it is a common observation among the people of that country to say, that the Christian powers make presents in homage; or in other words, not voluntarily, but (b'zimminhume) by compulsion.

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