considerably indebted to Vishnú-Sarma. The history of the former is overshadowed by uncertain traditions: he is mentioned as Job's nephew-as the son of Terah-as the father of Anám or Mathan, and by some writers is made contemporary with David. The Korán recognises his existence, and Beidávi notices him in his commentary: Hafiz in his Kasidah on Ali, also, enumerates him among the ancient prophets.

And as in these verses Lokmán is classed with "Joseph, Jacob, John the Baptist, and Noah," so in the following distich, Alexander the Great finds a place in the company of Lot, Elijah, David, &c., from whence we may fairly argue, that little or nothing was known concerning him, and may therefore, with good reason, doubt the strange histories of him which the Arabic Tarikhs and religious books have transmitted to us.

Towards the close of the 11th century, a Greek version of these fables was made by Simeon Seth, or Simeon the son of Seth, which was called Στεφανίτης καὶ ̓Ιχνηλάτης: there were likewise Hebrew and Syriac translations of them, the first of which was attributed to Rabbi Joël, the other to Boud Periodeuta (cf. Assemanni Bibl.) The late Dr. Leyden records their existence in Malay.

We remark as many strange traditions concerning Æsop, as concerning Lokmán. According to Maximus Tyrius, Lucian, and Stobæus, he was a Phrygian;-according to others, a Samian or Thracian. Theon Sophista divides the fables of antiquity into Αισωπείος-Λιβυστικοί οι Συβαριτικοί Φρύγιοι — Κιλίκιοι Καρικοὶ Αἰγύπτιοι and Κύπριοι : hence, we may infer that there were numerous modifications of them; and as he particularly informs us that the first class was not named Æsopic, because Æsop was the inventor of this style, but because he made use of fables μᾶλλον κατακαιρῶς καὶ δεξιῶς, we have no hesitation, from their internal proofs, in referring them to an Indian origin. Quinctilian cites Hesiod as the first fabulist, but we may easily retrace his Theogony to the East. When it is remembered, that, according to Plutarch, Esop continued a long time with Croesus, and wandered from place to place, we cannot doubt from whence those polo were borrowed which pass under his name; and it is singular, that as the early translation of the Hitopadesa was

versified, so Socrates and Babrias are affirmed to have reduced these likewise to metre.

Considering therefore the incoherent materials presented to us for the compilation of Lokmán's history, and the dispute, whether he were a Persian by birth, and a Jew in faith, who flourished in the time of Kai Khausrav, or whether he were a native of Abyssinia, or contemporary with the Prophet Hud or Eber, his tomb being at Rama in Palestine, we can only discover one certain mode of research, which is by identifying him with Esop. Both were said to have been deformed, and to have been in a servile station of life, from which both were at length manumitted. D'Herbelot thus expresses himself on the subject: "L'on pourroit dire, avec beaucoup de vraisemblance, que Locmán est le même que celuy, que les Grecs, qui ont ignoré son nom, nous ont fait connoître sous celuy de sa nation, en l'appellant Esope, qui signifie la même chose en Grec, que le mot d'Ethiopien. En effet, on trouve dans les Paraboles, Proverbes, ou apologues de Locmán en Arabe, des choses que nous lisons dans les Fables d'ESOPE." In the sequel, however, he seems to have bewildered himself by a fruitless and most unsatisfactory comparison of Oriental and Greek chronology. Sir W. Jones doubted the existence of such a person as Æsop. The name AlowTos has in the preceding quotation been interpreted an Ethiopian, on which we may remark, that as Abyssinians were in Persia and other parts of the East, very frequently slaves, so the word is an epithet often given to slaves, whether they be or not of Ethiopian origin. The Surah says,

حبشي

مردم از هر جنس و قبیله

جباشة

Col. Colebrooke has collated the Pancha Tantra with the KaKila wa Dimna, to which and the Hitopadésa, we may retrace with considerable alterations these various fables. Lokmán and Æsop both mention the stag beholding his image in the water; and their expressions so closely correspond the one with the other, that we must pronounce one of them a translation of the other, or both versions of a common original. In proof of which, the moral, which is wanting in the Greek, is supplied in the Arabic: "And he said, dying, woe to me! wretch that I was, to have despised that which might have preserved me, since that to which I trusted has destroyed me." That these words were once in the Greek, we infer from the translation of Phædrus. "O me infelicem! qui nunc demum intelligo,

Utilia mihi quam fuerint, quæ despexeram,

Et quæ laudaram, quantum luctus habuerint."

In collating these different translations we shall frequently observe a change in the names of the animals, and fables without a counterpart in the others. The Tiger with the Golden Bracelet and the Traveller, (in the Hitopadésa,) excepting in the catastrophe, is the same as Lokmán's and Æsop's Lion and the Fox. With similar differences, we may retrace the Bull, the two Jackals and Lion-the Lion jumping into a well after the reflection of his own image-the Deer, Jackal, and Crow-the blind Jackal, Cat, and Birds-the Crow, Golden Chain, and black Serpent-the Ass in the Tiger's skin-the Brahman who broke the pots and pans, and others in the Hitopadésa in either Lokmán, Æsop, or Phædrus ;-if not in all of them, in many instances. One of these old fables appears to have formed the subject of St. Paul's allusion, 1 Cor. xii. 14-21, 25, 26, in which we, as it were, naturally recall to mind the pobos of the Belly and the Members: the Apostle's moral is, va unoxiopa Év tã owματι, ἀλλὰ τὸ αὐτὸ ὑπὲρ ἀλλήλων μεριμνῶσι τὰ μέλη.

The writings of Plato, Aristotle, Proclus, and Jamblichus, are marked with this style, which the Asiatics have named

and the verses of Homer and Hesiod have been : لسان الغياب

interpreted in as figurative a manner, as those of Hafiz, Jami and Nizami have been by Sufis and Scholiasts. Sir W. Jones traced this species of occult composition (of which we must reckon fables a more exoteric or a clearer branch) to the Vedanti school. The hieroglyphics and various anoppnτa of Babylonians, Ægyptians and Magi would readily give a taste for this species of composition, which probably, with the Corybantes, Tityri, Satyri, and other mystagogues, was conveyed from the East into Greece. The rapid progress of the Muhhammedan power in some degree checked this ardor for ancient mysticism; yet even in countries subject to its sway, it revived, but taking another turn, was applied by the fervid votaries to Koránic legends, and Bacchanalian odes mysticised into theological subtleties.

As Muhhammedanism acquired root, speculative studies soon became elevated to the rank of sciences, each of which were subdivided into almost innumerable classes; and although many deserving the name were cultivated, still they were more or less admixed with fanatical reveries and stupid traditions. As chief we may rank the phe, or that of history, to which, or criticism, including logic and polemics, suc

علم التواريخ

ceeds. Under Mathematics they comprise the science of numbers, geometry, astronomy, and music; under Metaphysics, psychology and other fanciful subjects; under Physic, medicine, veterinary medicine, anatomy, botany, natural history, agriculture, metallurgy, mineralogy, chemistry, magic, (with the various sciences of divination in numberless subdivisions,) optics, mechanics, hydraulics, navigation, &c.; which, with ethics, politics, the art of government, and military science, (independent of those that have arisen from the most abject superstition,) complete the range of Muhhammedan studies. Their works on history and geography are by far the most valuable.

As a specimen of these several "sciences," I subjoin a dialogue, which Professor Hammer translated into German, from the Arabic of Imam Ghazali,

The story of Beshír and Shádán.

Hormuz, the Vizier of a Persian prince, was blessed by Heaven with a witty and shrewd son, who at seven years of age was thoroughly instructed in reading the Korán, the whole of which with facility he committed to memory. At fourteen years of age, when his reason became matured, he was made acquainted with the remaining sciences, in each of which he in a short time made a surprising progress. After his father's death, the prince offered to him the post which he had filled; but wishing to form a correct estimate of the inadequacy of all earthly honors and goods, and seek his happiness from the contentment of his mind, he declined it. One day he betook himself to travel, and directed his way towards Baghdad, the house of salvation, the seat of the Khalifs. In the beautiful neighborhood of this city he met a young Arab of a lean and emaciated figure, whose internal worth was strongly marked in his countenance, who saluted him in Arabic. Shádán, in utter astonishment,

and inquired of him, in what عليك السلام عبدالله ,replied

manner he had become acquainted with his name, having never previously heard it? Hast thou not,' replied the young Arab, with much vivacity and elegance, 'heard the saying of the Prophet? THERE ARE MANIFOLD LEGIONS OF SPIRITS: SOME

INDEED OF THE ANCIENT WORLD HERE MEET AGAIN THEIR KINDRED WITH AFFECTION; OTHERS SEPARATED

'Hammer has quaintly rendered this: "dessen inneres Gold Werth seyn musste, wenn anders die gelbe Farbe seines Gesichts wahr sprach."

FROM THEM COME NO MORE TOGETHER UPON EARTH." Shádán by this reply perceived, that the young man was initiated in the deepest mysteries of science, and answered: Since thou knowest my name, it is no more than fair that I should be informed of thine.'

ARAB. Shouldest thou continue in ignorance of the name which my father and mother gave to me, it is nothing to the purpose: thou knowest that name which God, the dispenser of all good and evil, has given to me; for he says in the Korán, ALL CREATURES IN HEAVEN AND ON EARTH ARE SER

They talked much together in the same familiar way, when a cloud of dust announced the approach of a horseman. This horseman was no less a personage than the Khalif Harún A'rrashid, who had wandered from his followers in the chase. He saluted the two young men, who with considerable embarrassment returned his salutation. The Khalif, who had perceived the fire of a dazzling genius in both their eyes, became desirous of holding some conversation with them, and first of all asked the Arab, 'Whence come ye both?' From the three darknesses,' replied he; from the darkness of a mother's lap, of the womb, and of the epidermis.' The Khalif, surprised to find so much wisdom in so young a man, inquired farther Whence art thou?' ARAB. Be more accurate in thy expressions! What meanest thou by THOU2? A man or a woman?

KHALIF. That is not my question. Only inform me how many years old thou art? (literally, how many years hast thou?)

ARAB. I have no years: years are all in the hand of God.

KHALIF. Well then-how many reckonest thou?

ARAB. I reckon from one up to a hundred thousand. KHALIF. What question then must I propose to thee to obtain a rational answer from thee?

ARAB. Inquire-how much time has flowed away from thy life?

• Alluding to Shádán's return to his salutation: Abd'allah means, servant of God.

2 The Khalif appears to have been guilty of an error in the vowel

415

points: is the masculine pronoun, the feminine,