are formed through the rock, there is a casing of small stones, extending to the base, giving them the appearance of modern linekilns. No doubt lead was one of the chief objects of search. Some of the shafts were driven through the passages of the "Ogof", and for some distance below the level of the floor.

In later times attempts have been made to renew the workings, especially one of the large mines towards the south-west, it yielded for a time a large quantity of lead, and afterwards failed. These attempts have probably gone on for many generations, but never with great success. About the early part of the present century several mining tools were discovered in one of the old workings, showing that it had been abandoned some time.

IV. MEDIEVAL PERIOD.

Carreghova Castle.'-This is one of the many historical places which cannot fail to interest those who wish to keep in remembrance the events of byegone days of Powysland. Many of the venerable relics still remain to testify of the power of the princes who held the sovereignty of this part of Britain; but of this fortress the only remains are those found recorded in the annals of history. Suddenly the bulwarks and towers arose, and as suddenly they were erased, and that so completely, that only a small fosse remains to point out the site of the stronghold. The chief events in its annals are known and chronicled; but the time and circumstances of its overthrow are shrouded in the

womb of a bye-gone age. Yet the eye of the Cambrian patriot may well be fascinated by the romantic beauty of the site, and by its imposing military station, his mind may be interested in its turbid and changeful career, and his imagination may find abundant scope for roving in the intermediate mazes of uncertainty,

I beg to acknowledge the kindness of the Rev. G. Sandford, who allowed me the use of his interesting paper on "Historic Spots", for the compilation of this section.

which cluster about its downfall. The castle derives its name from Carreg, a stone, and Hwva, Offa, the rock or stone of Offa; probably so called on account of Offa's Dyke being thrown up along the brow of the cliff. Between this cliff, known as Blodwell Rock, and the river Tanat, stood the fortress, its immediate site being the left bank of that river; the water being taken from the Tanat to fill the fosse. It stood in the township of Carreghova, formerly belonging to the Hundred of Chirk, and in the county of Denbigh, but now joined to the Lower Division of the Hundred of Deythur, Montgomeryshire.

At the Norman Conquest, the whole of this district fell into the hands of Roger de Montgomery, who was a relative of William the Conqueror, and a knight of great valour, and became therefore a portion of the Shropshire Palatinate. The remainder of the parish fell to the possession of Alan, also one of William's nobles, to whom was given the title of Baron of "Oswaldestre", and from whom was descended the noble line of Fitzalans. Carreghova was thus a distinct fief from that of the Walcheria' of Oswestry.

The Norman Barons soon began to erect numerous fortresses upon their lands, chiefly to assert their own rights, and to keep their fiefs free from the incursions of their neighbours and the adjoining Welsh tribes. During this period were erected the castles of Ellesmere, Shrawardine, and Ruyton, in the interior of Shropshire; Carreghova, Oswestry, Knockyn, and Whittington castles were erected nearer the British borders. These lordships were known as the Lordships of the Marches, and were for ages the cause of numerous petty wars. Pennant says William's design in establishing them was to give to those whom he had brought over the power of providing for themselves, and to reduce at the same time the opposition of the

1 "A district of the borders which, from its exposed situation, wa necessarily governed and protected by the local chieftains, and amenable to peculiar laws and customs quite differing from English law.” -Eyton, Ant. Shrop

Welsh people. The lands were held by certain tenures, and the lords had despotic power over their vassals.

History relates that Carreghova was often the scene of warfare between the Lords of the Marches and the Princes of Powys. It is first brought under our notice through the struggle between Owen Cyveiliog and his son Gwenwynwyn, and these lords.

Florence of Worcester tells us that in the year 1101, when Robert de Belesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, commenced the fortifications of Bridgnorth against King Henry I, he also began another fortress in Walonia, in a place called Caraclove. In the year following, the earl was employing workmen by night and by day, in order to complete the walls and towers of these two castles. Belesme's design' with regard to Carreghova Castle had, perhaps, something to do with the alliance which he formed with the Welsh princes, Cadwgan and Gervase, sons of Rees. The earl put great trust in this alliance, and one of the first moves of King Henry was to dissolve the compact by bribing the Welshmen. The surrender of all Belesme's castles is announced by Florence in the same sentence with his banishment from England. Eyton presumed that Carreghova was included, and thus devolved to the crown.

In 1165 we find Henry II entering Wales near Oswestry, where he encamped, and preparing to engage the Welsh forces under the command of Owain Gwynedd and his brother Cadwallader and Rhys ap Grufydd; these were allied with the Powysians under Owen Cyveiliog and the sons of Madog ap Meredydd. From this time Henry had possession of Carreghova Castle, and kept it well garrisoned, it being a key to the district he was entering upon. After slight successes on the banks of the Ceiriog, he was obliged to encamp on the Berwyn Hills, from whence he soon retreated, owing to his supplies being cut off, and heavy rains falling. Southey, in his Madoc in Wales, introduces David Eyton, Antiq. Shrop.