is clear (pure). The reason is clear (evident). The view is clear (unobstructed). The sight is clear (sharp). The sun is clear (luminous). The voice is, clear (distinct).

EXERCISE.

Upright denotes post, ears, man, conduct. Find the corresponding attributes.

The term vain connotes worthless, conceited, ineffectual, unreal, ostentatious, unsatisfactory. Find the corresponding objects denoted. What does 6 connote ?

Give the concrete term for the abstract: then furnish examples of its denotation, and also of its connotation:-Frankness, candour, openness, ingenuousness. Mildness, gentleness, meekness, softness. Idleness, laziness, indolence, slothfulness. Silliness, foolishness, absurdity, weakness, stupidity, simplicity, dulness. Civility, politeness, courteousness. Wickedness, sinfulness, depravity, guiltiness.

IV. A RELATIVE AND CORRELATIVE.

A relative name denotes one object, and implies another.

A correlative denotes the existence of one name, depending on that of another.

In the relation of master and servant, the foundation of the relation is the fact that the one has undertaken to perform certain services at the bidding and for the benefit of the other. Son is the correlative of father.

What is the correlative of darkness? of rest?

What is the fact in the foundation of the following relations? Ruler, subject; cause, effect.

A relation is a connexion perceived, or imagined, between two or more objects.

V.-UNIVOCAL-EQUIVOCAL

-ANALOGICAL.

A univocal word is affirmed of subjects in the same sense. The lark is conical billed. The finch is conical billed. The starling is conical billed.

An equivocal name, having more than one connotation, is equal to two or more names written alike.

As: A box of tea. The box borders flower-beds. Keep a box (in the theatre) for me. You gave him a box on the ear.

An analogical name is equivalent to two names; the one used in the primary, the other in the secondary, signification. Examples: The sting of the insect produced acute pain. The sting of death is sin. Show that the words fish, reptile, bird, mammal, are univocal.

Show that the names chest, card, riddle, ball, are equivocal. Employ analogically, light, morning, jewel, flower, sun. The meaning of a word sometimes regards its denotation, sometimes its connotation. It is necessary to keep the distinction always clearly in mind.

What is the meaning of the adjective ruminant? Should the querist wish the denotation, the answer would be: The camel, deer, goat, and bovine kind; should he wish the connotation, it would be: Having the property of chewing again what has been swallowed.

Show that the question, What does the word shrub mean? is equivocal.

VI. THE PREDICABLES.

The Predicables are a five-fold division of general names. They show what attribute is denoted.

Genus-a real kind, distinguished by many properties, not derivable from another kind, as, animal. Species-the lowest kind, to which any individual is referrible, connoting more than the genus, but denoting less, as, man.

Difference-what the name of the species implies, more than that of the genus. The genus and the difference are equivalent to the species, as, rational.

Property-not implied in the name of the species, but to be inferred from some property which is implied, as, capable of understanding language.

Accident-neither involved in the name, nor to be inferred from it, as, an American.

GENUS. SPECIES. DIFFERENCE.

PROPERTY. ACCIDENT.

capable of un- American. derstanding

language.

Man is an animal, rational, capable of understanding language, an American, European, &c.

A variety is a species modified. In the organized kingdoms, species is founded on identity of form and structure. Every species of oxen, dogs, sheep, &c., contains varieties, which possess properties in different degrees.

In verbal propositions, the predicate connotes only what the subject connotes; man is rational, animal, corporeal, of human form.

In real propositions, the predicate connotes qualities not connoted by the subject; man is an animal, which has eight incisors, tusks solitary, and erect posture. Which predicable is denoted in the following examples ?

An eagle is a bird. He shot a golden eagle. Birds have two wings formed for flight. The magnet attracts iron. It possesses polarity. The orator is a Hungarian. The adder is a serpent. Justice is a virtue. Man is an animal that makes exchanges.

The history of words shows the law by which the successive meanings were produced, as, gentleman, a man of family, a wealthy man, a polite man. Casual connotation sometimes supersedes the original meaning; as, Pagan, “a villager.” Persons living in the country did not generally embrace Christianity as early as those in cities. Hence Pagan came to connote "heathen."

What was the original meaning of Gentile, heathen, Hebrew ? Some words assuming additional meaning, take on by specification, fresh connotation; as, vitriol, originally any crystalline body with a certain degree of transparency, but now the name of sulphates of iron, zinc, copper, cobalt.

Some words, again, acquiring a more general acceptation, lose by generalization portions of their connotation: oil originally denoted only olive oil, now it denotes fixed oils, volatile oils; oils produced by heat from mineral substances, and oils produced by chemical action.

Say whether the words in italics, in the following examples, have taken on fresh connotation by specification, or have lost portions of their connotation by generalization.

He was a villein of my lord. You are a calm thinking villain. Glass, glesum, amber, was collected in the Baltic.

In 1845, the glass manufacture of Great Britain was relieved
from the payment of duty.
His virtue in the field was seen.
Add to your faith, virtue. Alkali, the ashes of glass wort.
Soda and ammonia are alkalies.

VII.-DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION.

Definition is that part of a proposition which declares the connotation. Thus :-Metal is a simple, fixed, shining, opaque body, insoluble in water, fusible by heat.

A logical definition is equal to the genus, and the difference; as, man is a rational animal.

In imperfect definitions, a part only of the connotation is declared; as, metal is opaque, fusible.

Description is definition by names not included in the connotation; as, man is a mammiferous animal having two hands.

Proper names, not having connotation, are described, not defined: as, Stephen, the proto-martyr ; Alexander, the pupil of Aristotle, and the conqueror of Darius.

Define mineral, grass, grain, coal, anger, revenge, peevishness, sympathy, burglary, robbery, theft, larceny, felony, civilization, charity, stimulant, metaphor.

Describe the bat, the gull, eagle, (golden); the elephant, porpoise, rein-deer; Queen Elizabeth; Mary, Queen of Scots; the oak.

VIII. - OBSERVATION,

EXPERIMENT, ABSTRACTION,

TERMINOLOGY, NOMENCLATURE, CLASSIFICATION. Observation, what is perceived, not inferred from the perception.

Experiment, the examination modified by circumstances, introduced with a view to more complete investigation.

Abstraction, obtaining by comparison a general conception, then comparing other phenomena with the conception.

Terminology describes individual facts observed. Nomenclature is the names of kinds. Classification is arranging and distributing. Classification by series arranges kinds according to the degree in which sensation, thought, and voluntary motion are exhibited; as, fish, reptile, bird, mammal.

A Type is the genus, or species, which exhibits, in the most eminent degree, the phenomena under investigation. The genus felis is the type of the felidæ, or carnivora.

Give examples of the confounding of inference with observation; of experiment, abstraction; terminology, nomenclature, and classification.

IX.- -THINGS DENOTED BY NAMES.

1. Feelings. 2. The minds which experience feelings. 3. The bodies which excite feelings, with their properties. 4. The relations of co-existence and succession, of likeness and unlikeness between feelings.

Mind is the sentient subject of all feelings. Body is the external cause, to which we ascribe our sensations.

Consciousness, knowing one's own mental operations. A feeling is a state of consciousness.

Sensation, the impression with which we are affected through our senses by the presence of an object : as, the plant is cold. It has cold qualities, but no sensation of cold.

Perception, that act of the mind which makes known an external object. Conception reviews in the mind the impressions of absent objects. Belief is the direct recognition by the mind of objects which are external to itself. Thought is that which the mind thinks.

Emotion, a motion of the mind with a view to enjoy or repel desire. Passion, agitation of the