32. This same distribution of subjects (adopted in a book long ago published*) I propose now to adhere to, with this difference only, that we shall take up the three in a different order. Metaphysical abstractions are a product of the human Mind when the faculty of abstraction has been called into exercise, and has developed itself in some good degree; therefore, in strictness, it could only claim a subordinate place in a scheme of mental science, for the subjects it includes are fruits or results of a certain mental faculty. But, in like manner, the pure mathematics might be so regarded, for these also are a product of the same faculty, although employed in a different direction, and as confined to a particular class of ideas—those of number and extension; therefore this body of determinate thought might be challenged to come into its place, and might be required to contain itself within a chapter of a treatise on mental science. But a method of proceeding such as this would be highly inconvenient; nor could any thing that might be said in favor of its logical fitness reconcile us to so arbitrary a course.

33. Whatever the human mind has wrought out of its own stores, or chiefly so, by the exercise of its inherent powers, and with little aid from the outer world, might, on the same principle, if strictly applied, be assigned to its place in a comprehensive scheme of mental philosophy. All those products of reason which place man, when cultured, in a position immeasurably in advance of the animal orders around him, are the fruit of processes of thought, in the course of which the Mind-not, indeed, as if disjoined from * Elements of Thought.

the material world, but yet as holding itself off from it—works with, and upon itself, bringing itself to a bearing upon the external world, indirectly only, or as if at nodes of its orbit.

34. In prosecuting the physical sciences, we employ ourselves upon objects or phenomena concerning which we can know nothing by anticipation, or any otherwise than by observation and experiment; and while acquiring, in this way, what we come to learn of the material universe, the Mind employs its faculties unconsciously as to the mechanism of its own powers: it would be absurd, therefore, as well as inconvenient, to bring the physical sciences into their places as chapters in a scheme of mental philosophy.

35. Equally inconvenient would it be, and yet not in the same sense absurd, to bring mathematical science into its place in such a scheme. Less inconvenient, and, on some accounts, reasonable, would it be so to treat metaphysical abstractions. Yet there is a reason sufficient for keeping these also apart, and for regarding them as entitled to an independent treatment. In like manner as we conceive of the relations of extension and number as having an eternal reality, and accept them as truths unchangeably certain, even if there were no material world, and if there were no created intelligences to apprehend them, so, as to those abstract notions which are embraced in the circle of metaphysical sciences, we imagine them to be unchangeably true, and believe that they must remain what they are, although all minds also were to become extinct. This, at least, must be said, that these abstract principles have an aspect of independent and

B

unchangeable reality, such as compels us to conceive of them in this way.

36. We give to Metaphysics the foremost place in this elementary book for this reason-that if we succeed in setting the subject clear of mystification, and if we lay down a safe road on the border of abysses, real or imaginary, our after-course will be much less. perplexing than otherwise it might be. We do not commence with a profession that we shall be able to send a plumb-line into the depths of speculative philosophy, but this we may do we may show a marginground upon which we may walk with satisfaction.

37. The order of subjects, therefore, is this: First, we take in hand those abstract notions which belong to Metaphysics; and this initial work may quickly be dispatched. Secondly, we shall have before us a wide field-the physiology of Mind-Mind as known to us on all sides. Thirdly, Logic will come to be considered, or, rather, the methods of reasoning proper to different subjects.

III.

METAPHYSICS:

ULTIMATE ABSTRACTIONS.

38. THE popular belief concerning the subjects which are now immediately before us is this-that they are in an extreme degree difficult of apprehension; that they are obscure, indeterminate, and such as can be attractive to none but a very few whose minds are peculiarly constituted.

39. A supposition of this kind is so far well founded as this—that metaphysical notions are not to be distinctly apprehended without some effort of attention or labor; and it is for this very reason that they may, with so much advantage, be made use of as a means of intellectual discipline. Further than this, the popular belief is well founded; for it must be granted that, when metaphysical problems are treated controversially, and critically, and historically, the discussion of them drags itself out to great length, and it is apt to become, at every stage, less and less intelligible, and less and less attractive, except to a very few.

40. It is, or it may be, otherwise if only the limits. of the human faculties in this region are seen and are regarded; if verbiage be avoided, if brevity be studied, and especially if a writer in this department be free from the ambition to create for himself a reputation as a discoverer or as a reformer. In this case metaphysical science may be simplified, and it may be brought within narrow limits.

41. Great freedom in the use of language may safely be admitted in treating the physical sciences, because the things which are spoken of are near at hand -visibly or palpably, whether they be material elements or organized bodies, so that if any ambiguity has had place, it may at once be dispelled by a reference to the objects or the phenomena in question. In mathematical reasoning, no license or freedom whatever in the employment of its symbols can be allowed, or, indeed, could be desired; for these symbols having a fixed connection with the quantities or with the relations which they represent, the certainty of the proc

ess of reasoning, in any case, depends upon an undeviating adherence to the value and meaning of each

term.

42. In treating metaphysical abstractions, we can neither avail ourselves of the advantage of making a reference continually to things visible, concerning which we are reasoning, as we do in the physical sciences, nor, on the other hand, can we go on with a chain of demonstrations without any such reference, as in mathematical reasoning. For on this ground, that is to say, when we are carrying on any process of thought concerning purely abstract notions, ordinary language, which is our only medium, is not susceptible of any such fixedness and precision as belongs to geometric and arithmetical symbols. The remedies applicable to these inconveniences are two: the first is, to study perspicuity and simplicity in style; and the second is, to be on our guard, at every step, against the easily-besetting error of supposing that, by means of some newly-phrased expression of abstract notions, we have penetrated the mysterics of being, and have placed ourselves in advance of the philosophy of our times. The only advance which the human reason is likely ever to make on this ground will consist in the final removal or dissipation of imaginary mysteries, and the putting out of fashion all attempted mystifications. Whoever shall do this effectively will have rendered a good service to abstract philosophy.

43. The words three, five, eight, twelve, have no meaning if they are taken purely and singly, and are held apart from all other words or ideas. But they