Abbildungen der Seite
PDF
EPUB

419) ships were steered to the south by the magnet. But it was not with the compass alone that the Chinese were so early acquainted: M. Klaproth has shown that they had observed, long before us, the variation of the needle from the true pole.

The author of a Chinese work on medicine and natural history has the following passage:-"When a steel point is rubbed with the magnet, it acquires the property of pointing to the south; yet it declines always to the east, and is not due south. If the needle be passed through a wick (made of a rush) and placed on water, it will also indicate the south, but with a continual inclination towards the point ping, or south." Klaproth then shows that such is actually the case at Peking, according to the observations of Père Amiot, who states, as the result of his own experiments during a number of years, that "the variation of the magnetic needle continues the same in this capital, viz. between 2° and 2° 30′ to the west." Now, as the Chinese suppose that the point of magnetic attraction is to the south, they of course reverse the foregoing terms, and say that the needle points south, with a variation east.

This very difference is a mark of the originality of the Chinese compass, which is farther proved (as Mr. Barrow observes) by their having engrafted upon, and combined with it, their most ancient astrological notions. From the numerous specimens in this country, it may be seen that this instrument, instead of consisting of a moveable card attached to the needle, is simply a needle of less than an inch in length, slung in a glazed hole in the centre of a solid wooden dish, finely varnished. The broad circumference of this dish is marked off into concentric circles, on which are inscribed the eight mystical figures of Fohy, the twelve horary characters, the ten others which, combined with

these, mark the years of the cycle, the twenty-four divisions of their solar year, the twenty-eight lunar mansions, &c.

The Chinese, however, appear to have applied the polarity of the magnet to a double purpose, and to have used it in ancient times as a guide on shore as well as at sea. This was effected by a machine called a magnetic car, in which was placed a little figure of a man turning on a point, and having its finger always directed to the same part of the horizon. A representation of the car is inserted in Klaproth's work, as copied from a Chinese encyclopædia. It is stated, in a history of the Tsin dynasty, that the figure placed upon the car represented "a genius in a feather dress," and that, when the emperor went out on state occasions, this car "always led the way, and served to distinguish the four points of the compass." These mag

netic cars were also known in Japan about the middle of the seventh century, as is proved from the testimony of Japanese works; but they admit that the invention came from China.

But however ancient their knowledge of the compass, the art of navigation among the Chinese has rather retrograded than advanced in later times. It is clear that they once navigated as far as India, and their most distant voyages at present extend no farther than Java, and the Malay islands to the south. The principal obstacle to improvement consists in the unconquerable prejudice which forbids any alteration in the construction of their clumsy and unsafe junks. The hull of these in shape and appearance is not unlike a Chinese shoe, to which it is sometimes compared by themselves.* The stern is cleft, and as it were open, to admit the huge rudder, and thus shelter it

*The eye painted on the bows has a singularly exact parallel in the eye of Osiris, painted on those curious models of Egyptian vessels contained in Mr. Salt's collection of antiquities, sold in London, and many of which may be seen at the British Museum.

in some measure from the blows of the sea; but with the least stern-way on the vessel it seems calculated to prove fatal. In lieu of pitch, they caulk with a putty composed of burnt gypsum and oil,* mixed sometimes with bamboo shavings for oakum. Their flat unyielding sails of mat enable them to lie much nearer to the wind in light weather than our ships can do with canvas sails: but then, on the other hand, the flat bottom, without any keel whatever, occasions their falling fast to leeward, and gives the advantage altogether to our vessels. The clumsy anchors of the junks are made of a very heavy and hard wood, called by the Chinese teih-mo, " iron-wood," and they have only a single arm in some cases.

[graphic][merged small]

It has been objected to the accuracy of Marco Polo, that he mentions junks having more than one sail to a mast, on the ground that "Chinese vessels do not carry

*Extracted from the Tung-shoo, or Dryandra cordata.

any kind of topsail." The fact, however, is that they do very frequently, in light weather, and with the wind right aft, carry a topsail of canvas or cotton. These, with a view to holding as much wind, with as little perpendicular strain on the mast, as possible, are stretched to only about half the actual height of the sail; and they accordingly belly or bulge very much. It seems to have been proved, by the experiments of Mr. Edgeworth on the resistance of the air, that a curved surface of the same perpendicular height holds more wind than a flat one; or that the pressure of the wind is increased by augmenting the surface on which it acts. Admitting this to be the fact, it seems to be in favour of the sagacity of the Chinese in this particular instance.

As long as their junks confine themselves to the neighbourhood of the coast, their course is pretty certain. They generally stand boldly across between the most prominent headlands, and are guided along the whole line of coast by a tolerably accurate directory, in which are noted the harbours, currents, shoals, and other particulars. The courses are pointed out by means of the figures, already described, on the circumference of their compass. They can take no observations of the sun themselves; but it sometimes happens that a junk sailing as far as Batavia will engage a Portuguese of Macao, who is just able, with an old rusty sextant, to take an altitude of the sun and work out the latitude in a rough way. This, however, is never done in short voyages, where they steer by their compass without any chart, and judge of the distances by the last promontory or island in sight; a practice in which long experience makes them very ready.

Mr. Gutzlaff was passenger in one of these junks from Siam to the north of China, and has given a very full and interesting account of the voyage, as well as of the manage

ment and internal economy of a Chinese trading-vessel. Besides perpetual offerings to an image of the "Queen of Heaven," whom we have before mentioned as the sailor's deity, they worship the compass itself. This is covered with a stripe of red cloth, some of which is also tied to the rudder and cable, the next objects of consequence to the sailors. Incense-sticks are burnt, and gilt paper, made into the form of a junk, is kindled before it. The compass likewise constitutes head-quarters on board. Near it some tobacco, a pipe, and a burning lamp are placed, and here the crew adjourn to enjoy themselves. In a dead calm, a quantity of gilt paper shaped like a junk is set adrift, and offerings made to the goddess and sundry demons: but if all this proves ineffectual, the offerings cease, and they await the result in patience.

The account which Mr. Gutzlaff gives of the manning and discipline of these trading-junks serves to explain in part the loss of so many at sea, when combined with the other imperfections attendant on their construction and management. They seem to be filled with the scum and off-scourings of the Chinese population-abandoned and desperate characters who have nothing to lose, and who cannot subsist on shore. Besides the principal owner of the cargo, or agent for those who own it, there is the captain or pilot. He sits constantly on the weather-side of the vessel, observing the shores and promontories as they are approached, and from habit seldom lies down to sleep. Though he has the nominal command over the sailors, these obey him or not, according to their pleasure; and sometimes scold or brave him like one of their own number. Next to the pilot is the helmsman, who manages the steering and sails. Besides clerks for the cargo, there is a purchaser of provisions, and another whose express business it is to attend to the offerings and to burn incense.

« ZurückWeiter »