scious and automatic, the faculties of them and properties that are the very foundations of All the conclusion which the facts warrant is that actions for a definite end, having indeed the semblance of predesigning consciousness and will, may be quite unconscious and automatic; that the movements of the decapitated frog, adapted as they are to secure its well-being, are no more evidence of intelligence and will than are the movements of coughing, sneezing, and swallowing in man. displays of instinct, through sensory and associated motor nuclei. They seek what is good for. them, avoid what is hurtful to them, provide for the propogation of their kind-perform, indeed, all the functions of a very active life without knowing that they are doing so, not otherwise than as our pupils contract to light, or as our eyes ac commodate themselves to vision at different distances without consciousness on our part. The highest specialisations of this kind of nerve-function are displayed by the ant and the bee; their wonderful instinctive acts show to what a degree of special perfection sensori-motor action may be brought. Unlike the bee and the ant, man must slowly learn the use of his senses and their respondent movements. This he does by virtue of the fundamental property of nerve centres, whereby they react in a definite way to suitable impressions, organically register their experience, and so acquire by education their special faculties. Thus it is that many of the daily actions of our life, which directly follow impressions on the senses, take place in answer to sensations that are not perceived become, so to speak, instinctive; some of them being not a whit less automatic than the instinctive acts of the bee, or the acts of the pigeon deprived of its hemispheres. When we move about in a room with the objects in which we are quite familiar, we direct our steps so as to avoid them, without being conscious what they are, or what we are doing; we see them, as we easily discover if we try to move about in the same way with our eyes shnt, but we do not perceive them, the mind being fully occupied with some train of thought. In like manner, when we go through a series of familiar acts, as in dressing or undressing ourselves, the operations are really automatic; once begun, we continue them in a mechanical order, while the mind is thinking of other things; and if we afterwards reflect upon what we have done, in order to call to mind whether we did or did not omit something, as for instance to wind up our watch, we cannot satisfy ourselves except by trial, even though we had actually done what we were in doubt about. It is evident, indeed, that in a state of profound reverie or abstraction, a person may, as a somnambulist sometimes does, see without knowing that he, sees, hear without There can be no doubt that the ganglionic knowing that he hears, and go through a series of nuclei of the senses-the sensorial nuclei-are acts scarcely, if at all, conscious of them at the connected with motor nuclei; and that we have time, and not remembering them afterwards. in such anatomical arrangement the agency of a For the most distinct display of sensori-motor acnumber of reflex movements. Most of the in- tion in man, it is necessary that his cerebral stinctive acts of animals are of this kind, the hemispheres, which are so largely developed, and faculties being innate in them. In man, however, intervene much in the functions of the subordi who is actually the most helpless, though nate centres, should be deeply engaged with their potentially the most powerful, of all living own functions, or that these should be suspended. creatures, when he comes into the world, the This appears to be the case in those brief attacks sensory and associated motor nuclei must be of epileptic unconsciousness known as the petit educated, just as the spinal centres must. To mal, in which a person will sometimes go on with illustrate this sensori-motor or instinctive action, the work he was engaged in at the time of the we may take the results of Flourens' well-known attack, utterly unaware of the momentary interexperiment of removing the cerebral hemispheres ruption of his consciousness. There are many of a pigeon. What happens? The pigeon seem- instances of this sort on record, which I cannot ingly loses at once all intelligence and all power stop to relate now; they prove how large a part I have taken the experiment on the frog to of spontaneous action. It appears as if it were sensori-motor functions, which are the highest exemplify the proposition that designed actions asleep; yet, if thrown into the air, it will fly. If nerve functions of so many animals, play in our may be unconscious and automatic, because the laid on its back, it struggles on to its legs again; daily actions. We ought clearly to apprehend phenomena are more simple in it than in man, the pupil of the eye contracts to light, and, if the the fact that, as with the spinal cord, so here, the and more easy, therefore, to be understood; but light be very bright, the eyes are shut. It will movements which take place in answer to the the proposition is equally true of his spinal cord. dress its feathers if they are ruffled, and will stimulus from without may be excited by the In its case, however, we have to bear in mind sometimes follow with a movement of its head the stimulus of the will descending from the hemithat faculties are not innate to the same degree movement of a candie before it; and, when a spheres, and, that, when they are so excited, the and extent as in the lower animals, but have to pistol is fired off, it will open its eyes, stretch its immediate agency of them is the same. The movebe acquired by education-to be organised, in neck, raise its head, and then fall back into its ments that are outwardly manifest are, as it were, fact, after birth. It must be taught, just as the former attitude. It is quite evident from this ex- contained inwardly in the appropriate motor brain must, before it can perform its functions as periment that general sensibility and special nuclei; these have been educated to perform an organ of animal life; and being much more sensations are possible after the removal of the them. Hence it is that, when the left corpus under the control of the more highly-developed hemispheres; but they are not then trans-striatum is broken up by disease, the right cannot brain, feeling and volition commonly mingle formed into ideas. The impressions of sense do its special work; if it could, a man might largely in its functions, and its independent action | reach and affect the sensory centres, but write with his left hand when his right hand was cannot be so plainly exhibited. But when its they are not intellectually perceived; and disabled by paralysis. motor centres have been taught, when they have the proper movements are excited, but these gained by education the power of executing what are reflex or automatic. There are no ideas, are called secondary automatic acts, it is certain there is no true spontaneity and the anithat it can and does habitually execute them mal would die of hunger before a plateful of independently of consciousness and of will. They food, though it will swaliow it when pushed far become as purely automatic as are the primitive reflex acts of the frog. To the statement, then, that actions bearing the semblance of design may be unconscious and antomatic we have now to add a second and most weighty proposition namely, that acts consciously designed at first may, by repetition, afterwards became uncon In the constitution of the animal's spinal cord are implanted [the faculties of such movements for self-preservation, which it has inherited as a part of its nature, and without which it could hardly live a day; accordingly it acts necessarily and blindly; though it has lost its foot, it endeavours vainly to act as if its foot was still there, and only when the irritation continues unaffected by its futile efforts makes, in answer to it, those further reflex movements which are the physiological sequences of the unsuccessful movements: it supplements one series of reflex actions by another. But although these purposive movements are not evidence of intelligence and violition in the spinal cord, it is another question whether they do not evince the same physiological properties and the operation of the same laws of evolution as govern the development of intelligence and will in the higher centres. *Two lectures delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1870. By HENRY MAUDSLEY, M.D., F.R.C.P., Professor of Medical Jurisprudese in Uni versity College, London. enough into its mouth to come within the range Thus much, then, concerning our sensori-motor acts, When we have yielded up to the spinal cord all the part in our actions that properly belongs to it, and to the sensory ganglia and their connected motor nuclei all the part that belongs to them, we have subtracted no inconsiderable part from the phenomena which we are in the habit of designating mental, and including under mind. But we still leave untouched the highest functions of the nervous system-those to which the hemispherical ganglia minister. These are the fanctions of intelligence, of emotion, and of will; they are the strictly mental functions. The question at once arises whether we have to do in these supreme centres with fundamentally diff. rent properties and different laws of evolution from = = the square root of; the ultimate strain divided by depending on the increase of rigidness called forth B C2 X 28 C = = B === 28 Table III. Hemp. Iron Wire. Steel Wire. Equivalent strength. Circumference. those which belong to the lower nerve centres. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. T is not every kind of tar that destroys the and Stockholm are said to preserve the rope, so that in the execution of important works it is recommended that the ropes should have been recently manufactured, and be made of the best Petersburg hemp, with Archangel and Stockholm tar. The tar applied to ropes made by the warm register is more fluid than in those made up with the yarns cold, and therefore penetrates every fibre of hemp completely. Again, as the heat drives off both air and moisture, each fibre is brought into closer contact by the twisting and compression of the strand, and the strength of the rope is greatly increased. Another advantage is derived from the warm register, as ropes made by the same are almost impermeable to water, so that it is absolutely necessary in places where they are exposed to the wear and tear of the weather to have them made by the new process. The dimensions of ropes are generally 'stated in terms of their girth or circumference, and worked to about one-sixth of their breaking strain. The weight of hempen ropes (in lbs. per fathom) is approximately found by multiplying the square of their circumference by 26. Flat ropes, made by placing four round ropes side by side, and stitching them up by machinery into a flat band, are now used for many purposes where great lengths or depths, such, for instance, as in raising coal from pits, have to be attained. 34 Table IV. shows the weight and strength of flat ropes of hemp and wire : RIGIDNESS OF ROPES AND STRAINS. It is obvious that this force will chiefly They possess great strength and flexibility. In some cases, if ropes were applied they would be cut to pieces in a very short time, and the Amontont and Coulomb (celebrated French weight of chains might also be inconvenient; it is engineer, born 1736 in Angoulême, and received in such instances that wire ropes are used, and the first prize of the Paris Academy of Sciences have proved to answer the purpose very well in for his Théorie des Machines Simples;" died working inclined planes, &c. On the Durham- in 1806) were the first who investigated this force, Sunderland railway, trains are drawn up and let and the experiments of the latter, which follow, down an inclined plane of 4 miles length by led him to the mathematical formula :means of an endless wire rope, made of three pieces. Should the diameter of a rope not occur in the table, Coulomb gives the rule n multiply the next approaching value by 72 whereby is the diameter of the rope whose rigidness is required, The power n varies from 1 to 2, according to quality and strength of the rope. The same found also that ropes, when moist, possess less rigidness when of large diameter, and greater stiffness when of small dimensions. But although rope made by the warm register is both stronger and more durable, it is less pliable, and therefore the cold-registered rope is more generally used for crane-work, where the rope must be wound round barrels and passed through pulleys, as in these cases the radius of curvature is very small. A formula more applicable to practical purposes is one proposed by Eytelweint and symbols lically demonstrated by The two practical rules for computing the strength of ropes are sometimes enunciated to Whereby S is the registry of the rope, & the dia-measures, the following may prove useful:-1 metre= meter of the same, r the radius of curvature; n 39-371in, and 1 kilogramme 22048lb. lin. = 00254 To find the breaking weight in tons of a rope an integer; a co-efficient, both varying with the met., aud 1lb. 04535 kilog. made of common hemp, multiply the square of quality of the rope, and b a magnitude merely the circumference (in inches) by 288; conversely 2 r ment, sometimes used in watches. A MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. One pallet B, works in front of the wheel and the 93. Duplex escapement, for watches, so called 105. A single-pin pendulum escapement. The escape-wheel is a very small disc with single eccentric pin; it makes half a revolution for every beat of the pendulum, giving the impulse on the upright faces of the pallets, the horizontal faces of which are dead ones. This can also be adapted to watches. two tools. 96. Lever escapement. The anchor or piece The framing of the machine consists of a B which carries the pallets, is attached to lever, central boss 1, made hollow to go over the head E C, at one end of which is a notch E. On a disc of the millstone spindle when operating on the secured on the arbor of balance is fixed a small bed stone, and this boss is connected by arms 2, pin which enters the notch at the middle of each to a segmental ring 3, accurately turned, or vibration, causing the pallet to enter in and retire otherwise made flat on its underside to rest on from between the teeth of escape-wheel. The the surface of the millstone 4, near the outer wheel gives an impulse to each of the pallets edge thereof, that being the part of the millstone alternately as it leaves a tooth, and the lever 97. An escapement with a lantern wheel. An surface that can be most relied upong of the truly level. A 91. Arnold's chronometer or free escape To facilitate the placing spring A is fixed or screwed against the plate of the watch at b. To the under side of this spring frame on the stone three adjustable claws 5, are fixed on the segmental ring 3, and catch upon is attached a small stop d, against which rest the top binding hoop; accurate centering, howsuccessively the teeth of the escape wheel B; and 98. An old-fashioned watch escapement. ever, of the frame on the stone is not essential. on the top of spring is fixed a stud i, holding a 99. An old-fashioned clock escapement. Two of the frame arms 2, are made in the same lighter and more flexible spring which passes 100 and 101. A clock or watch escapement; line tangential to the boss, and to them there is under a hook k, at the extremity of A, so that it 100 being a front elevation, and 101 a side eleva- fixed a horizontal guide 6, made with V rails to is free on being depressed, but in rising would tion. The pallet is acted upon by the teeth of receive a saddle 7, which can be moved along the lift A. On the axis of the balance is a small stud a, which touches the thin spring at each one and the other of two escape-wheels alter-guide 6, by means of a screw spindle 8. nately. horizontal arm 9, is fixed to the saddle 7, so as oscillation of balance-wheel. When the move- 102. Balance-wheel escapement. C is the to stand out at right angles from the guide 6, ment is in the direction shown by the arrow, the balance; A B are the pallets; and D is the and this arm is made with horizontal V rails to stud depresses the spring in pissing, but on guide a slide 10, in which is adjusted the tool or returning raises it and the spring A and stop d, bort holder 11. The bort holder 11, is a spindle and thus allows one tooth of escape wheel to pass. screwed at its upper end to receive a nut, and letting them fall immediately to arrest the next. At the same time that this tooth escapes, another formed at its lower end with a cross plate to fit a rebate in the bottom of the slide 10, and with a strikes against the side of the notch g, and reboss in which a socket is bored to receive three stores to balance-wheel the force lost during a angular steel bits by which the bort is fixed. The vibration. It will be understood that only at one point is the free movement of balance opposed a cylindrical form a little less than the socket, three steel bits are shaped to build together into during an oscillation. and the bottom corners of their central meeting edges are hollowed to grip the bort, whilst they are adjusted upon it by screws tapped through the sides of the socket. With this simple con 92. Stud escapement, used in large clocks. Extracted from a compilation by Mr. H. J. Brown Editor of the American Artisan. escape-wheel. 103. A dead-beat pendulum escapement. The inner face of the pallet E and outer face of D are concentric with the axis on which the pallets vibrate, and hence there is no recoil. 104. Pin-wheels escapement, somewhat resembling the stud escapement shown by 92. The different forms, but the form of those on the right pins A B of the escapement wheel are of two side is the best. One advantage of this kind of escapement is that if one of the pins is damaged it can easily be replaced, whereas if a tooth is damaged the whole wheel is ruined. DRESSING MILLSTONES WITH THE DIAMOND OR " BORT." are lifted for re-dressing they are found to be in perfect trim, having a beautiful straight level face, and with much of the former dressing still clear and distinct. One miller using Mr. Young's machine found, on a careful comparison with the results of the ordinary handbill dressing, that out of every hundred boll of wheat (1 boll 240lb.) he obtained a bag and a-half, equal to 420lb., more fine flour, with proportionally less seconds. = points can be adjusted so as to cut accurately in | running six days and nights. When the stones struction the bort can be gripped in any position Two borts with their holders may be carried and is much less de FIG.10 pendent on individual skill, as it can be prised in the "rotatory" and "rectilinear" classes, of which Golay's and Young's are respectively the chief representatives; and they differ amongst each other mainly as regards minor details, a critical comparison of which would not only be tedious and uninteresting, but it is also incapable of being satisfactorily made at present on account of the small experience as yet had with most of them. Naturally, where several patented machines for the same purpose compete, questions must arise as to the novelty and validity of each, and as to whether the more recent are infringements of the earlier patents. The main competition is practically between the two most successful machines, Golay's and Young's; and we believe that the great hindrance to the more general adoption of one or other of these machines has been the doubt whether Golay's patent is valid, and whether Young's machine, as has been openly asserted by persons interested in Golay's patent, is an infringement of it. At the same time many of the most extensive millers in the United Kingdom have adopted one or other of the machines, convinced of the great superiority of the dress over hand dress. As regards the diamond itself, Golay does not claim to use the diamond except when acting with rapid blows, and clearly could not validly claim the plain, continuous, rectilinear cut of the diamond in face of the earlier patents of Childs and Knight; whilst as both Young and Golay are obliged to use bort instead of the common clear diamond, it is plain neither of them is clear of Jobin's patent. As regards the necessary apparatus, Young's only resembles Go'ay's in having a horizontal guide and slide with a screw feed motion at right angles thereto; but in this respect both Golay's and Young's resemble Morisseau's, whilst Young's arrangement is in fact more like Morisseau's than it is like Golay's. We will not take upon us to certify how the lawyers will decide the questions, but they appear to us very simple ones, and plain common sense answers to them sufficiently obvious. We have applied the term "bort" to the substance now used for dressing millstones, as being the best and most distinctive appellation without coining a new word; it is, however, also used to designate the impure fragments and excrescences which are removed from the rough diamond in the process of cutting, and which are not so hard or suitable as the stones originally found in a detached state. THE END. CAPTAIN PETERSON'S IT BOAT. hours in ten ounces of cold water, and again dried 5. A few grains of the cocoa are burned on a As we have already remarked, although the ... 4.5 Now we are brought face to face with the question: Ought this addition of starch and sugar to cocoa to be regarded as an adulteration? If, on the one hand, we take the word adulteration to mean the mixing of anything hurtful or deleterious with an article of food, the answer must be in the negative, because not only is the starch harmless, but it supplies a want in the article itself, besides diluting its rich and somewhat dyspectic qualities. Indeed, this admixture has been regarded by an eminent food authority, as "a skilful chemical adjustment, made without chemical knowledge, as the result of long and wide experience." But, on the other hand, if we take adulteration to mean the mixing of anything (even if it should be beneficial) with an article of diet, withont distinctly setting forth the fact, the present style of cocoa manufacture becomes a sophistication. With the greatest desire to let this matter down gently, as we have no wish to hold almost all the cocoa manufacturers in England up to public reprobation as sophisticators, we connot escape the fact that many prepared cocoas are advertised as "genuine," nor can we help harbouring a shrewd doubt, that the comparative prices of cocoa and starch had much more to do with the "skilful chemical ad. justment," than a real desire to benefit the public. We should advise the many respectable firms engaged in the cocoa trade to call their cocoas such term as would convey the true impression of plainly and distinctly prepared cocoas, or by some their nature. This would be very much more sensible then denominating them genuine," "soluble," or "homoeopathic," &c., when all the connection they have with solubility simply conColour Chief Foreign sists in the amount of soluble matter added as a of Ash. diluent, and with homeopathy in the small amount of real cocoa which they give at a dose. In a word, we are once more brought back to the necessity for an "Adulteration Act," such as we have all along steadily advocated-namely, a law to compel everything to be sold under its own name, with proper officers to see the Act carried out; but to hope for such a thing under the present regime, seems almost Utopian; and we have no resource but to follow the dictum of an eminent statesman, and to "agitate and agitate." 48.5 11.8 Soluble in ether (fat) -100.0 The colour of the ash was a light grey, and no foreign starch was visible under the microscope. With this explanation we proceed to the 5 Analysis of Thirty-one Samples of Cocoa. ture. Solu In Soluble in Solu- solu- 8 4.6 Grey. None A little 11 T is said the invention of C. W. Peterson, of No. 7, Oakley-crescent, City-road, London, for the application of steam power to lifeboats, is destined to effect an important improvement in our lifeboat system, and consequently to increase very considerably the means at our disposal for saving life at sea. The Committee of the Shipwrecked Mariners' Society, after examining the models and drawings of the invention, have expressed themselves pleased with it, and are anxious that it should have an adequate trial. Captain Peterson is confident that his boat will be able to put to sea in all weathers, and that, if No Mois- ble in upset, it will instantly right itself without losing its motive power. The advantage it will possess, both in respect to increased speed and power, over the lifeboats now in use must, of course, be self-evident, but the great thing is to put the invention to the test. The cost of building a trial boat will be about £600 or £700, towards which the Committee of Lloyd's have subscribed £50, the Salvage Institution in £52 10s., the Shipwrecked Mariners' Society, £50, the Royal National Life-10 boat Institation £100, Miss Burdett Coutts £100 41 31.5 16.6 25.7 22:0 and about £50 has been contributed by merchants 12 5'6 82.4 20:3 2019 2018 and others, making altogether upwards of £400. 14 11-2 206 47.0 100 10.9 The names here mentioned as subscribers afford 15 4.5 27.1 35.2 25.9 7.2 16 5:0 21.0 38:0 300 60 a guarantee for the practicability of the proposal, 4.8 29.4 28.0 28.9 7.9 and we trust their liberality will at once be sup- 6.0 20-2 42.3 248 66 Red. plemented to such an extent as to insure the com68.4 19 64 39.5 395 plete realisation of Captain Peterson's intentions. 4.0 11.8 18.0 16-7 The object is one of such national importance that 22 71 11-6 38-8 87-0 5:1 it ought to command universal sympathy and sup-23 104 11.9 port, and to be received with special favour and 24 interest by maritime communities directly con- 261 cerned in the welfare and safety of our seamen. 27 This being so, Captain, Peterson may reasonably expect such an amount of assistance-and that, too, within a very short time-as will enable him to put his invention to the test. We should like to know what Mr. Lewis, the zealous Secretary of the Royal Lifeboat Institution, or any one else who has paid attention to the subject, has to say about these lifeboats. If the thing be practicable, we see no reason why the ENGLISH MECHANIC Lifeboat should not be propelled on its beneficial errands by steam. POPULAR FOOD ANALYSIS.- (Continued from page 175.) at the following results of our analysis. But before doing so, we will explain the simple process we have adopted for obtaining our results. The mode of procedure does not pretend to absolute accuracy to a fraction, but will be found in practice easily performed and understood. It is as follows: 1. Twenty grains of the cocoa are weighed out and dried for some hours at a steam heat. The dry cocoa is then weighed, and the loss of weight, multiplied by 5, gives the moisture, 2. The residue (from 1) is digested for two hours, with frequent agitation, in four ounces of ether, and the latter having been poured off as closely as possible, the cocoa is again dried, weighed, and the loss of weight ascertained and calculated as above. The loss equals fatty matters. 3. The residue (from 2) is digested for six Arrowroot. Almost none, None. 25 6.1 139 38.9 34.2 6-6 14.9 44.6 28-2 5.9 66 4.9 30-0 6.8 4.0 33 10 4 34 26.2 42.1 7:0 14.7 334 39-5 Arrowroot. Sago. Arrowroot. It will thus be seen that, out of all the samples the cocoa-consuming portion of the public. We 66 In our next article we will conclude the subject by giving directions, illustrated by engravings, for the detection of adulterations of cocoa, by means of the microscope. THE PATENT LAWS. A SHORT time since a meeting of the Man chester Patent Law Reform Association was held, Sir William Fairbairn in the chair, when the following petition to Parliament was discussed and adopted : "That your petitioners being persons engaged in various branches of industry and commerce in the city of Manchester and the surrounding district, formed themselves, with others, in 1850 into an association for procuring a reform of the patent laws as then existing and administered, the evils of which and the remedies therefor, they set forth in memorials to the Board of Trade and petitions to l'arliament in 1850, 1851, and 1852, and, after incessant labour and expense, were the principal means of obtaining the Patent Law Amendment Act of 1852. That Act, although it did not adopt all the recommendations of your petitioners, provided remedies for some of the then existing evils, such as granting immediate protection to inventors on application, a of obtaining letters patent, and the publication of all specifications and indexes thereto; but it left untouched many of the evils for which your petitioners pointed out remedies, which had they then been provided for, would have satisfied the public and prevented the unreasonable outcry now raised for the entire abolition of the present patent laws. That your petitioners are fully of opinion that the fees may be considerably reduced, as they consider the cost of obtaining letters patent should not exceed what is absolutely necessary for the maintenance of the Patent Office and printing the specifications and indexes. That your petitioners, fully sensible of the advantages of a well-devised patent law, are decidedly of opinion that any attempt to abolish these laws would prove not only highly injurious to the best interests of the country, and destructive to the inventive powers of the nation, but would ultimately destroy the high position this country has attained in the prosecution of the |