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part of the matter forming a nebula is invisible, we remove the immense difficulty which we otherwise experience in attempting to conceive how nebulæ have assumed or can retain their extraordinary shapes and yet be subject to the law of gravitation.

The researches of Huggins prove that many of the nebulæ are gaseous self-luminons masses, whilst the spectra of others prove the existence of solid or liquid matter. These last being generally those which are most easily resolved, would be those which have been longest in existence, and which, therefore, should contain most liquid and solid matter.

The curious shapes of the nebulæ are well explained on this theory.

Thus the spiral nebulae would be produced by two masses of gas rushing together and forming an eddy in which they become mingled with each other. If any detached portion of one gas got mixed up with the other gas, it would be drawn out by the eddy into an elongated spiral form, the earface of which would become visible by the light produced by the chemical action. This would be the kind of nebula which would be produced when the two masses of gas did not differ greatly in size, and rushed together in a line not very oblique to the line joining their centres of gravity.

be

Annular nebula might be formed in the follow-
ing manner. If a small mass of gas were at-
tracted to a larger mass so as
just to graze its surface on pas-
sing it, its path (previously pa-
rabolic) would become elliptic,
and its motion would
changed into a periodical re-
volution round the larger mass.
At each revolution it would Lassell, pl. 1. fig. 4.
graze the surface of the larger
mass, and the elliptic orbit would gradually be
changed into a circular one.
would at length come to re-
volve about the larger mass in
such a manner as continually to
graze the surface, and an annu-
lar nebula would be the result.
Those nebulæ, like the larger
one in Andromeda, in which
streaks of darkness cross the
bright parts, offer the greatest Nebula in Lyra.
difficulty in their explanation.

It

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We might imagine that a mass of rare gas has
become entangled between two
masses of dense gas, and that
the masses of dense gas being
attracted to one another, crush
out the rare gas into a thin sheet,
which, looked at edgewise,
presents the appearance of a dark
streak.

Some of the nebulæ of this
kind have nuclei; and it may
be remarked that the position of
the nucleus, which will be the
centre of gravity of the nabulæ, is
in the position in which we should
expect to see it if the appa-
rent vacuous streaks were in
reality filled with matter.

Many of the nebulæ are very much diffused, and in shape very irregular; but even these show certain characteristics which seem to indicate their mode of

Lassell, pl. 5.
fig. 21 A

Before turning to the subject of comets, I may remark that the theory that there are large masses of invisible gas traversing space, affords an explanation of the sudden temporary outbursts in the intensity of certain stars. Such an outburst might occur if a star became enveloped with a mass of gas with which it could chemically combine.

It also explains the phenomena of periodical stars. Mr. Huggins has found that the diminution in the intensity of the light of these stars is due to an increase in the number and size of the

absorption bands in their spectra.

It has already been suggested that large opaque bodies may be revolving in orbits round such stars, and periodically obscuring their light. We have only to suppose that large masses of invisible gas instead of opaque bodies revolve about them, to explain the phenomenon in accordance with spectroscopic observation.

(To be concluded next week.)

FRICTION IN STEAM CYLINDERS.*
BY MR. P. JENSEN.

10 few data exist on the subject of friction in
approaches

it with some diffidence, more especially as he has not had time to make direct and comprehensive trials which would furnish particulars for exhaustive treatment of the subject. He, therefore, can only offer such remarks and make such deductions from the experience of others and of himself that have a bearing on the subject, without assuming to settle questions relating thereto. Of the importance of the subject there can be no question, as engineers are aware of the great percentage of power that may be consumed in piston friction. Hence it is well to define this loss under various circumstances, and then to apply remedies for diminishing the loss. Friction in the steam cylinder may be classed under three heads; piston friction, slide valve friction, and stuffing box friction. As regards piston friction it ought to depend upon the working pressure, the packing material employed bing surface of the packing, and the means of for keeping the piston tight, the extent of the rublumi-lubrication. It is evident that a piston should not be made to stand a higher pressure than that it is intended to work with, otherwise a great amount of power may be lost by unnecessary friction, and wear and tear both of piston and cylinder will ensue. It also appears evident that engines expanding the steam to any great extent in one cylinder should have piston packing, the tension of which is dependent upon and constantly vary. ing with the pressure of the steam at any part of the stroke. There is not, it is believed, any difficulty in this, and all are doubtless familiar with which answer the purpose in a greater or less one or more constructions of pistons of this sort degree.

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Some spiral nebulae consist only of a single formation. The extreme faint-
whirl. A nebula of this kindness of their light favours the hypothesis that they
might be produced by a are not luminous throughout, but that their
small mass of comparatively
dense gas rushing obliquely
into a large mass of rarer
gas. Such a mass would
tend to the centre of gravity
of the larger mass; and
since those parts which

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Lassell, pl., 1. fig. 3.t are nearest the centre of

gravity would be most accelerated, it would become drawn out into an elongated spiral form.

After a time the whole of the smaller mass of gas will have collected about the centre, and a globular or planetary nebula will be formed.

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In the annexed diagram, copied from a drawing by Lassell, we apLassell, pl. 7. pear to have a globular nebula in the fig. 30. process of formation. That the smaller mass of gas has entered obliquely is shown by the fact that the ending a b of the tubular portion oblique to the axis of the tube; for the line a b will indicate the boundary of the larger mass. That the gas is collecting about the centre of the larger mass is indicated by the fact that the line o c joining the centre of the globe with the end of the tube is perpendicular to a b-as it should be, supposing the larger mass of a spherical form.

Lassell, pl. 2. fig. 9. Planetary nebulae, consisting of more than one envelope might also be formed in the same way as those having only one envelope, the envelopes being formed in succession at different periods

of time.

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Lassell, pl. 5. fig. 21.

nosity occurs only here and there in comparatively
thin shells.

the intensity of their light should be greatest
Again, if these nebulae were luminous throughout,
where the thickness of matter looked through is
greatest. and should fade away at the boundaries,
the boundaries should appear brighter than other
whereas, if the visible parts occurred in shells,
parts; for at the boundaries the line of sight
would be very oblique to the shell, and a greater
thickness of luminous matter would be looked
through. Now if we examine any of the irregu-
lar nebula, we see some parts of it ending
abruptly with a clearly-defined outline, whilst in
other parts the light gradually fades away into
darkness. We may suppose that in the one case
we are looking edgewise at a shell, so that the
line of sight is tangential to its surface, whilst in
the other case we are looking at a part where the
luminous shell gradually thins out. Now in the
first case we find that the light increases towards
the border, consistently with the supposition that
the visible parts are in thin shells.

This peculiarity is, I apprehend, what Professor
Bond and Mr. Lassell refer to when they speak of
the scroll-like appearance of the nebula in Orion.
In those nebula which appear to have assumed
a more stable form, as in the elliptic and circular
nebula, the light diminishes from the centre to
the circumference.

mation; they may have become more condensed,
These nebule may be in a later stage of for-
and a more intimate mixture of the gases may
have taken place, and in consequence they may be
more or less luminous throughout. Their shape,
and the fact that they are generally resolvable in
have been a long time in existence.
the telescope, point to the conclusion that they

piston friction by assuming a certain constant pres-
The common rough and ready way of calculating
sure for the piston friction (which, as will be seen
sure per square inch of piston as being the mea-
the total friction) of the engine itself is erroneous,
presently, constitutes by far the greater portion of
or at any rate should be used with discrimination.
Although it has been found in a few instances that
the friction of a piston for instance in an engine
working with 2 atmospheres may be expressed by
(say) 2lb. per square inch of the piston, which may
just the requisite amount of tension, and not
or may not mean that the piston packing has had
perhaps 50 per cent. more than requisite, we have
no right to infer that the same rule holds good
with 5 or 10 atmospheres pressure. If the piston
packing has just the right tension, the friction
must amount to a certain percentage of the pres-
sure. But we must not lose sight of another cir-
cumstance-namely, that the circumference of a
area increases as the square of the diameter.
piston increases as the diameter simply, while the

double the amount of friction, or has it four times
Ths question is, has a piston of 24in. diameter
the amount of that of a 12in. piston, other circum-
stances being alike, that is, with the same material,
same depth of packing, state of lubrication, pres-
sure, &c. We must not forget either that the
diameter of the cylinder. Whether it is supposed
proportionate depth of packing varies with the
to give less wear on the piston rings (an opinion
considered incorrect by the author) or not, we
need not stop to discuss; the practice is, however,
not to increase the depth in direct proportion as

* Read before the Society of Engineers, March 7, 1869.

=

A MICROSCOPE.

AND MIND.*
LECTURE II.

(Continued from page 243.)

diameter of the piston increases in size, and HINTS ON THE SELECTION AND USE OF ON THE RELATIONS BETWEEN BODY it is that the piston friction does not in pracdecrease in the ratio otherwise anticipated, Agh it is believed that it does decrease. In r words, it is propounded that piston friction as pentage of power decreases as diameter increases, increases as pressure and depth of packing ease, the packing material being the same. In etice the following rule holds good :-Depth of king = √d in inches: for instance, for a n. cylinder, depth of packing = x7 = 5; smaller engines, Vd (say) 16in. cylinder, th of packing x=2in. This is for t-iron packing rings. With Ramsbottom's steel gsa much smaller depth is found quite sufficient. nce if it is found that 21b. per square inch is measure of the piston friction in a 12in. cylinr, it would seem that the friction of a 24in. linder (having four times the area but only able the diameter), would only be double, but as depth of packing is as 23 to 3-89 it would X 2 3-38, so that the pressure per nare inch absorbed bypiston friction would become = 1.691b. per square inch in a 24in. linder, and 21b. in a 16in. This is of course suming the ordinary theory of piston friction to correct, namely, that it is to be calculated by e superficial area of the piston packing X the ressure of the steam X the friction, co-efficient. If, nep, the above be correct, it is clear that we must void taking a certain fixed percentage of the ressure on the piston area as the measure of the iston friction, except we take the size of the ylinder into account.

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gist, of course depends entirely upon the HE quality of a microscope, says the Technoperfection with which it shows objects as they is a naturale quid instincts in man? Whence T question, Whence come these really are. Some microscopes distort objects so was derived the instinct which taught the idiot as to give views that are anything but correct. Others colour whatever they show with all the Woman to gnaw through the umbilical cord? Was brilliant hues of the rainbow. We have often it really the reappearance of a primitive instinct admired the magnificent colours displayed by of animal nature-a faint echo from a far distant natural objects under the microscope, such, for past testifying to a kinship which man has almost example, as the petal of the geranium, whose cells outgrown, or has grown too proud to acknowledge? are filled with the most brilliant scarlet colouring No doubt such animal traits are marks of extreme matter; or the crystals of the ruby oxide of cop-human degeneracy, but it is no explanation to call per, which are gorgeous beyond expression; or them so; degenerations come by law, and are as various objects seen by polarised light, which natural as natural law can make them. Instead gives to some of the most colourless and trans- of passing them by as abnormal, or, worse still, parent crystals colours that far excel the tints of stigmatising them as unnatural, it behoves us to the ruby or the sapphire; but we have often seek for the scientific interpretation which they smiled when asked to view the splendid colour must certainly have. When we reflect that every shown by hair, or a fly's eye, or a section of wood human brain does, in the course of its developseen by ordinary transmitted light, for we well ment, pass through the same stages as the brains knew that these objects have no colour of their of other vertebrate animals, and that its transiown, or at least only dull, neutral tints, and that tional states resemble the permanent forms of all the gorgeous hues so lavishly displayed were their brains; and when we reflect further, that merely the result of defects in the microscope. the stages of its development in the womb may It is unquestionably true that one of the fine be considered the abstract and brief chronicle of large achromatic microscopes, furnished with ob- a series of developments that have gone on jectives of low as well as high power, would be through countless ages in nature, it does not seem the best for all purposes of examination. But so wonderful, as at the first blush it might do, such microscopes are very expensive. A tolerable that it should, when in a condition of arrested one cannot be had for less than one or two hun- development, sometimes display animal instincts. dred dollars, while a first-class one will cost four Summing up, as it were, in itself the leading or five times that amount. Such a microscope, forms of the vertebrate type, there is truly a brute although desirable, is not absolutely necessary, brain within the man's; and when the latter stops and therefore we will turn our attention to the short of its characteristic developement as humān less costly kinds. -when it remains arrested at or below the level of an orang's brain, it may be presumed that it will manifest its most primitive functions, and no higher functions.

The first that presents itself is the simple lens The packing material has considerable influ-mounted in a metal or horn frame. In the hands lece on the friction. Hemp packing for moderate of a skilful observer, this instrument will do good and for high pressure causes more friction than service. Opticians frequently arrange several netallic packing, which is now almost universally lenses in one frame, and suggest the idea of comdopted. Cast-iron rings or Ramsbottom's steel bining them so as to obtain an increase of power. ings, though not giving so little friction as gun In general, however, this idea is fallacious, and metal, are generally preferred, because they wear the instruments are not properly arranged for the well and are not so much affected by grit. The purpose. In the first place, there is no diaphragm author's experience is that Ramsbottom's rings (or thin plate with a small hole in it) between the are tight, wear well, and do not require excessive lenses to cut off the extra light; and, in the tension. For great expansion in a single cylinder second place, the lenses are placed as close to each the tension of the packing should be dependent other as possible, so as to occupy but little room, upon the varying pressure in the cylinder, as and this prevents us from obtaining a good effect. Moreover, it is unfortunately true that opticians (somebody once called them in derision shop. ticians) rarely give us the best selection of powers. There is too much sameness in them. The best arrangement we could find in a large eollection consisted of three lenses, whose magnifying powers were respectively 25, 20, and 16 diameters. Now, this is not variety enough, and the reason for not making a greater difference between the powers of the lenses is the fact that high powers are so much smaller than the lower powers that to combine them in the same frame makes a clumsy instrument. We confess, however, that we would much prefer efficiency to elegance.

before stated.

A frame containing three plano-convex lenses, lin., in., and fin. focus, we have found altogether the most convenient arrangement. The mag. nifying powers are 10, 20, and 40 diameters; and whether we desire to examine a mineral, a flower, or an insect, whether we wish to look at the mildew on a grape-leaf or the beetle which prevs upon the buds, such a series of powers will enable us to do so thoroughly.

I am not aware of any other considerations than those just adduced which offer even the glimpse of an explanation of the origin of these animal traits in man. We need not, however, confine our attention to idiots only. Whence come the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the obscene language, the wild howl, the offensive habits, displayed by some of the insane? Why should a human being deprived of his reason ever become so brutal in character as some do, unless he has the brute nature within him? In most large asylums there is one, or more than one, example of a demented person who truly ruminates : bolting his food rapidly, he retires afterwards to a corner, where at his leisure he quietly brings it up again into the mouth and masticates it as the cow does. I should take up a long time if I were to enumerate the various brute-like characteristics that are at times witnessed among the insane; enough to say that some very strong facts and arguments in support of Mr. Darwin's views might be drawn from the field of morbid psychology. We may, without much difficulty, trace savagery in civilisation, as we can trace animalism in savagery;. and in the degeneration of insanity, in the unkinding, so to say, of the human kind, there are exhibited marks denoting the elementary instincts of its composition.

In considering the question of stuffing box fric-
ion, the author would first observe that the amount
of loss caused by it is only trifling if the packing
s in proper condition and the gland has been
properly fitted; but otherwise this loss may be
come enormous. The author is not aware of any
comparative experiments showing the friction
Pansed by the employment of various kinds of
tuffing-box packing, although that, doubtless,
as also a great influence. But what all are
ware of is the great wear on the piston rod
hrough having the packing too hard. A careful
ngine driver avoid this, but every engine driver
not careful, and if he has many other things to
bok to, as is often the case, then the plain question
rises whether it is not better either to use a
acking that requires but little lubrication, or
It behoves us, as scientific inquirers, to realise
se to provide means for keeping the packing
distinctly the physical meaning of the progress
ontinuously supplied with a very slight amount
of human intelligence from generation to genera-
f grease, which, as experience has shown, can be
tion. What structural differences in the brain are
fected by greasing the steam before entering
implied by it? That an increasing purpose runs
e cylinder. No other means are then found
through the ages, and that "the thoughts of men
ecessary for lubricating the slide rod or piston In selecting single lenses to be used as micro- are widening with the process of the suns," no
od, and hard packings become an impossibility. scopes, procure, if possible, those of which one one will call in question; and that this process
It is not intended to describe the various kinds side is perfectly flat, that is to say, plano-convex. has been accompanied by a progressive develop-
f packing; suffice it to say that there are some The view obtained by such lenses is always better ment of the cerebral hemispheres, the convolutions
hich answer their purpose very well, some of than that given by donble convex lenses of the of which have increased in size, number, and com-
em requiring little or no lubrication. The self- same power. Such simple microscopes are un-plexity, will hardly now be disputed. Whether
abricating mineral packing has under some cir-doubtedly the best cheap instruments. But at the fragments of ancient human crania which
umstances answered very well. Metallic stuffing a very slightly higher cost we may obtain that
ox packing has been proposed and used. On best of all simple microscopes-Wollaston's
ccount, however, of the great depths required doublet. This microscope is formed of two plano-
nd the expense and trouble attending its manu- convex lenses adjusted together in the same tube.
acture, it has never come into extensive use. It is rarely that we can find a good one in the op-
Tetallic stuffing-box packing would be a great ticians' stores, but they are so easily mounted that
oon, provided it answered its purpose. Mr. any working optician could put one together at
ohn Penn used to have one of his small
op engines fitted with metallic stuffing box
cking, and the author believes he has so now.

(To be continued.)

The Vielle-Montague Zine Mines and Foundries ompany increased its production of zinc last year to 036 tons, as compared with 40,216 tons in 1868, -260 tons in 1867, 31,722 tons in 1866, and 30,592 tons 1865.

short notice. One of our friends made a remark-
ably efficient instrument of this kind, having
formed the lenses of plate glass (a piece of broken
store window), which consequently did not require
the plane side to be ground, and arranged the
lenses in a tube made of stout writing-paper,
pasted. Suitable lenses could, no doubt, be pro-
cured by mail from most opticians, and it would
no doubt require no great manual dexterity to
mount them.

have been discovered in Europe do or do not
testify to the existence of a barbarous race that
disappeared before historical time, they certainly
mark a race not higher than the lowest surviving
human variety. Dr. Prichard's comparison of
the skulls of the same nation at different periods
of its history led him to the conclusion that the
present inhabitants of Britain," either as the
result of many ages of great intellectual cultiva
tion, or from some other cause, have much more
capacious brain-cases than their forefathers." Yet
stronger evidence of a growth of brain with the
growth of intelligence is furnished by an exami-

Two lectures delivered at the Royal College of
F.R.C.P., Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in Uni-
Physicians in 1870. By HENRY MAUDSLEY, M.D.,
versity College, London.

JUNE 10, 1870.]

nous forms."

These sug

nation of the brains of existing savages. Gratiolet truly the heirs of the ages. Take the moral If we were to examine the surface of a tool that has figured and described the brains of the Hot- sense, and examine the actions which it sinctions has just been removed from a grindstone, under tentot Venus, who was nowise an idiot. He found and those which it forbids, and thus analyse, or, the lenses of a powerful microscope, it would a striking simplicity and a regular arrangement as it were, decompose, its nature, and it will be appear, as it were, like the rough surface of a of the convolutions of the frontal lobes, which found that the actions which it sanctions are field which has recently been scarified with some presented an almost perfect symmetry in the those which may be proved by sober reason to be implement which formed alternate ridges and two hemispheres, involuntarily recalling the regu- conducive to the well-being and the progress of furrows. Hence, as these ridges and furrows larity and symmetry of the cerebral convolutions the race, and that its prohibitions fall upon the run together from both sides, at the cutting edge, in the lower animals. The brain was palpably actions which, if freely indulged in, would lead to the newly-ground edge seems to be formed of a inferior to that of a normally developed white the degeneration, if not extinction, of mankind. system of minute teeth, rather than to consist of woman, and could only be compared with the And if we could imagine the human race to live a smooth edge. For this reason, a tool is first brain of a white idiotic from arrest of cerebral back again to its earliest infancy-to go back- ground on a coarse stone, so as to wear the surMr. Marshall has also recently wards through all the scenes and experiences face of the steel away rapidly; then it is polished development. examined the brain of a Bushwoman, and has through which it has gone forward to its present on a wheel of much finer grit; and finally, in discovered like evidence of structural inferiority: height-and to give back from its mind and order to reduce the serrature as much as possible, the primary convolutions, although all present, character at each time and circumstance, as it a whetstone of the finest grit must be employed. were smaller and much less complicated than in passed it, exactly that which it gained when it This gives a cutting edge having the smallest the European; external connecting convolutions was there before,-should we not find the frag-possible serration. A razor, for example, does were still more remarkably defective; the second- ments and exuviæ of the moral sense lying here not have a perfect, cutting edge, as one may persulci and convolutions were everywhere and there along the retrogide path, and a condi- ceive by viewing it through a microscope. And than a human hair that the minute teeth cut the ary decidedly less developed; there was a deficiency tion at the beginning which, whether simian or yet the serrations are actually so much smaller of transverse commissural fibres; and in size, and human, was bare of all true moral feeling? We are daily witnesses of, and our daily actions hair in twain; but when the serrations on the every one of the signs of comparitive inferiority, "it leaned, as it were, to the higher quadruma- testify to, the operation of that plastic law of edge of the razor becomes so battered up and dull The developmental differences nervous organisation by which separate and that they will not sever a hair, or cut a man's between this brain and the brain of a European successive acquisitions are combined and so inti- beard off, the edge must be honed and strapped were in fact of the same kind as, though less in mately blended as to constitute apparently a until the system of minute teeth will be so much degree than, those between the brain of an ape single and undecomposable faculty: we observe smaller than a hair that several of them will take and that of man. Among Europeans the average it in the formation of our volitions; and we ob- hold of the smallest hair at once. weight of the brain is greater in educated than in serve it, in a more simple and less disputable gestions will furnish something of an idea of the Beginners are sometimes instructed, when uneducated persons; its size-other circumstances form, in the way in which combinations of move-operation in grinding and whetting edge tools. being equal-bearing a general relation to the ments that have been slowly formed by practice If the moral sense towards the cutting edge, and sometimes from it. mental power of the individual. Dr. Thurnam con- are effected finally as easily as if they were a grinding edge tools, to have the stone revolve cludes, from a series of carefully-compiled tables, single and simple movement. that while the average weight of the brain in which is derived, then, insomuch as it has been When the first grinding is being done it is a matordinary Europeans is 49 ounces, it is 54-6 ounces acquired in the process of human development ter of indifference whether this is done or not; in distinguished men; and Professor Wagner through the ages-were not more or less innate but when the finishing touches are applied near found a remarkably complex arrangement of the in the well-born individual of this age, if he were and at the very edge, a grinder can always comconvolutions in the brains of five very eminent obliged to go, as the generations of his forefathers ptete his task with more accuracy if the periphery men which he examined. Thus, then, while we have gone, through the elementary process of of the grindstone revolves towards the cutting take it to be well established that the convolutions acquiring it, he would be very much in the posi-edge, as the steel that is worn away will be reof the human brain have undergone a considerable tion of a person who, on each occasion of writing moved more easily; whereas, when a stone runs The progressive evolution always tell exactly when the side of the tool is development through the ages, we may no less his name, had to go through the elementary steps in the opposite direction, the grinder cannot justly conclude that its larger, more numerous, of learning to do so. and complex convolutions reproduce the higher of the human brain is a proof that we do inherit fully ground up to the edge. This is more espeand more varied mental activity to the progressive as a natural endowment the laboured acquisitions cially true when the steel has a rather low or soft evolution of which their progressive increase has of our ancestors; the added structure represents, temper. The stone, when running from the edge, answered---that they manifest the kind of function as it were, the embodied experience and memories will not sweep away every particle of the metal which has determined the structure. The vesicu- of the race; and there is no greater difficulty in that hangs as a "feather" but when the stone lar neurine has increased in quantity and in believing that the moral sense may have been so revolves towards the edge there will be no quality, and the function of the increased and formed, that in believing, what has long been feather edge" to deceive the eye of the grinder. more highly-endowed structure is to display that known and is admitted on all hands, that the intelligence which it unconsciously embodies. young fox or young dog inherits as an instinct The native Australian, who is one of the lowest the special cunning which the foxes and the dogs existing savages, has no words in his language that have gone before it have had to win by hard tem of obtaining water or other fluids from to express such exalted ideas as justice, love, virtue experience. These remarks are not an unnecessary digres-THE advantages claimed for Mr. Watson's sysmercy; he has no such ideas in his mind, and cannot comprehend them. The vesicular neu- sion. Nor will they have been made in vain if any depth, over any other method, will be easily rine which should embody them in its constitu- they serve to fix in our minds the conviction understood by our scientific readers from the action and manifest them in all its function, has not that the law of progressive evolution and speciali companying cuts, with but little explanation of or rocky soil being more particularly prominent. been developed in his convolutions; he is as in-sation of nerve-centres, which may be traced the details; its utility in boring through a hard In sinking or boring by this method, in ordicapable, therefore, of the higher mental displays generally from the first appearance of nerveof abstract reasoning and moral feeling as an tissue in the lowest animals to the complex idiot is, and for a like reason. Indeed, were we structure of the nervous system of man, and nary cases, the first length of tubing is provided to imagine a person born in this country, at this specially from the rudimentary appearance of with a fluted steel penetrator, having a groove cut time, with a brain of no higher development cerebral convolutions to the numerous and com- in the part fitting into the tube, so as to allow it than the brain of an Australian savage or a Bush-plex convolutions of the human brain, does not to revolve on the screws in the lower end of the man, it is perfectly certain that he would be more abruptly cease its action at the vesicular neurine pipe, which is made stronger for the purpose. The And the only way, I sup- of the hemispheres, but continues in force within spindle for carrying the weights used in driving or less of an imbecile. the intimate recesses of the mental organisation. down is provided with a collar, the lower side of Moreover, they are specially to the purpose, which forms a fair surface to fall on to the brass seeing that they enable us to understand in some hand nut, which is screwed on to the upper end of sort how it is that a perversion or destruction the tube, so that it is not injured by the blow, and the removed and another length of tube connected of the moral sense is often one of the earliest when down to the surface of the soil this nut is symptoms of mental derangement: as latest and most exquisite product of mental with an ordinary socket joint, as shown inthe Seme who one moment own freely the broad organisation, the highest bloom of culture, it is cut, the process being continued as before, and truth that all mental manifestations take place the first to testify to disorder of the mind- tubes added as required. In boring through a through the brain, go on, nevertheless, to straight- centres. Not that we can detect any structural rocky soil a double tube is used; the outer tube a way deny that the conscience or moral sensibility change in such case; it is far too delicate for its lower end has a steel collar fluted on the out can be a function of organisation. But if all that. The wonder would, indeed, be if we could side, and also revolving at each blow of th mental operations are not in this world equally discover such more than microscopical changes weights in a similar manner to that in the fore functions of organisation, I know not what war with the instruments of research which we yet going. The possess. We might almost as well look to rant we have for declaring any to be so. solution of the much-vexed question concerning discover the anatomy of a guat with a telethe origin of the moral sense seems to lie in the scope. considerations just adduced. Are not, indeed, our moral intuitions results of the operation of the fundamental law of nervous organisation by which that which is consciously acquired becomes an unconscious endowment, and is then transmitted as more or less of an instinct to the next ness were a large plane employed, in which were generation? They are examples of knowledge set a hundred or more very small gouges, each which has been hardly gained through the suf- cutting a narrow groove. The sharp grit of the fering and experience of the race being now in- grindstone being harder than the iron or steel, herited as a natural or instinctive sensibility of

pose, in which beings of so low an order of development could be raised to a civilised level of feeling and thought would be by cultivation continued through several generations; they would have to undergo a gradual process of humanisa. tion before they could attain to the capacity of civilisation.

the well-constituted brain of the individual.

In

the matter of our moral feelings we are most

(To be continued.)

GRINDING EDGE TOOLS.

DGE tools are fitted up by grinding, very

WATSON'S DEEP TUBULAR WELLS. (Illustrated on next page.)

The inner ube is provided with a steel poin stance of the single penetrator, but has, in add likewise constructed to revolve, as in the first in tion, two recesses to suit the two catches or tum blers fitted in the revolving collar of the out tube, which keep it in its proper position, with T br impeding its withdrawal when necessary. hand-nuts at the upper ends, similar to that on t single tube, thus insuring their being driv equally together. The inner tube can be drawn the surface at any time, either for the purpose cuts very small channels in the surface of the being sharpened, or of ascertaining the nature metal, and the revolving disc carries away all the the soil, &c., and replaced with perfect ease; minute particles that are detached by the grit. in tubes of 3in. or more in diameter, provision

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be made for ascertaining the nature of the various strata the tube is passing through without removing the inner tube at all. Where the outer tube is found to be at a sufficient depth to insure a good supply of water, the inner tube is withdrawn. The valves, pump, bucket, and gear are then placed in position-usually about 20ft. from the surface of the water-the pump rod being made hollow, so that in the event of grit or sand interfering with the proper working of the valves water can be passed down it on to them, and the obstruction cleared away-though this will be but seldom required, the pump being provided with a head valve, which always retains a column of water after it is discharged by the pump bucket. The whole of this arrangement will be clearly understood from the engraving, it being a very compact and serviceable job.

These wells are well adapted for the colonies, tropical climates, farms, gold and other mines, also in testing for mineral and other substances, and can be used to advantage as boring tools in Artesian well making.

For mansions situate at any distance from the water the tube wells are found useful.

THE

PHANTOM" BICYCLE.

from both wheels, and not from the front wheel alone, as in
the ordinary bicycle, and as the front wheel only turns half as
much as usual, it is never brought into proximity even with
the rider's thighs. It is completely railed off too by the frame
within which it is enclosed. In turning a corner, or on a
circle; the back wheel, therefore, always follows the line of
curve, each of the wheels are put upon the same are of a
the leading wheel; it passes over exactly the same ground, in
fact; there is in consequence no 'drag. In the event of a
fall the rider does not get hurt by the machine-that is, he
cannot get mixed up or entangled in a painful way between
the front wheel and the backbone, as in the ordinary bicycle.
The shape of the framework ensures greater speed being
obtained than does that of the ordinary pattern. There are
very convenient steps for mounting and dismounting, and
the same contrivances are serviceable as safe and comfortable
rests for the feet. A spring concealed in the steering-socket
destroys the vibratory concussions usually conveyed to the
throw, and when adjusted' they do not work loose.
The cranks are readily adjustable to any length of
Both
the wheels have fixed axles, and run in gun-metal bearings
provided with separate oil cups which do not leak. Lastly,
the wheels are a grand improvement in themselves, being
made upon the suspended principle in such a way that they
act as springs, and assist in dispelling the concussions caused
by red which is of a decidedly improved appearance, which is
by rough roads. The general result is that a bicycle is pro-
much safer to ride, easier to steer, far less dangerous to fall
from, and which is much easier to mount and dismount.
Finally, the speed, and consequently the case of driving are
improved by at least a third."

hands.

The remarks as to india-rubber tires are of general interest

These pumps are now being constructed for the patentee, Mr. G. Watson, of Plaistow, by Messrs. "A rubber tire is usually made up smaller than the rim of T. Blundell and Sons, of West India-road, Lime-the wheel it is intended for, and is held in its place by being house. stretched into a groove, formed in the wheel by putting flanges on each side of the rim. The defects of this plan are that when the wheel is pivoted upon its base, as when the machine is turning a corner, the rubber tire is wrung or twisted by the screwing motion of the wheel upon the ground, and directly a part of it is raised a little above the edge of the flange, the whole of the tire instantly springs out of the groove. To get it back is a job of some difficulty, especially if the accident happens when on a journey, as it takes at least two or three pairs of hands, and some little skill to stretch it in again. The stretching on of the tire is intended to prevent it from being twisted out by making it impossible to stretch it further. object in that respect, however, but it exposes the tire to This plan not only frequently fails to effect its constant danger of, if possible, a worse kind in another way. Stretched rubber gapes wherever it is cut, and as a very few

(For Illustration see page 277). THE machine represented in the accompanying sketch has been the subject of no little controversy among some of our readers, and in placing this cut before them we would recommend those who may desire to have further particulars than we can afford space enough to convey to consult the pages of the interesting pamphlet," The Bicycle; or, the Wheel and the Way," from which we make the following extracts:

"The machine is steered from the middle of the frame, or

a

weeks' wear, especially in districts where the roads are macadamised, produces a good many cats in the tire, the result is that it is disfigured by a number of ugly gaps, and is drawn thickness throughout its cifcumference. It then makes the up into thick and thin places, instead of being of an even machine bump and down, and becomes more of a nuisance is strong enough in the thick parts to tear the tire completely than an advantage, and by-and-bye the contractile tendency asunder at one or other of the thin places.

"The rubber tire of the Phantom' is a different thing, however, and it is not liable to any of these disadvantages. The principle upon which the wheel is constructed 'dispenses altogether with the necessity for an iron tire to keep it together, as the rim is held in by the suspending rods; that leaves a wood surface upon which to fix the rubber tire. The latter is made half round, and has a canvas base made up with it in the vulcanising process. The canvas hase serves two purposes; it prevents the tire from stretching in the direction of its length, and it forms a bed for holding the heads of short iron pins, which are driven through the rubber and into the wood rim at intervals of about every inch of the circumference. The heads of these pins are buried in the rubber, which closes over the hole made in driving them in, so that they are not seen or felt in any way. They keep the rubber tire from being shoved off. Then, as the rubber is not, and in fact cannot be, stretched in the direction of its get cut by sharp stones. Consequently there is practically length, it does not gape and stretch wherever it happens to no end to the wear of the tire, as, in spite of the cuts it may have across it, it retains its uniformity of thickness, and there is never any defect in its action. Of course the cutting of the rubber tire cannot be prevented, but by this plan of fixing it on, the practical usefulness and luxurious effect is not diminished by the cutting, the gaping of the cuts being entirely prevented."

TO CLEAN PAINT.-There is a very simple method to clean paint that has become dirty, and if our housewives should adopt it, it would save them a great deal of trouble. Provide a plate with some of the best whiting to be had, and have ready some clean warm water and a piece of flannel, which dip into the water and squeeze nearly dry; then take as much whiting as will adhere to it, apply it to the painted surface, when a little rubbing will instantly remove any dirt or grease. After which, wash the part well with clean water, rubbing it dry with a soft chamois. without any injury to the most delicate colours. It is Paint thus cleaned looks as well as when first laid on, far better than using soap, and does not require more than half the time and labour.

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[We do not hold ourselves responsible for the opinions of our correspondents. The EDITOR respectfully requests that all communications should be drawn up as briefly as possible.]

All communications should be addressed to the EDITOR of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, 31, Tavistockstreet, Covent Garden, W.C.

NEW STYLE OF RAILWAY.
that June is, as my querist probably knows, the worst,
month of all the twelve for the examination of
nebulæ.

I may tell "Investigator" (also on p. 256) that the method now universally employed, where practicable, for the determination of longitude, is that by the Electric Telegraph. As he appears to possess Loomis's Practical Astronomy," I can refer him to pp. 395, et seq., of that work for full details of the method adopted in practice. It may, however, serve to show with what extraordinary accuracy longitude can be obtained by the transport of chronometers, if I All eheques and Post Office Orders to be made pay-mention that of Mr. Airy, in 1844, superintended the able to J. PASSMORE EDWARDS. transmission of thirty pocket chronometers ten times backwards and forward between Greenwich and Feagh Main, at Valencia, in the extreme West of Ireland; and ASTRONOMICAL, OPTICAL, AND GENERAL. that when the difference of longitude between these SIR,-Let me, imprimis, congratulate my fellow sub-two places was redetermined galvanically in the summer scribers upon the advent into your columns of our of 1862, the result was almost precisely identical with Great Solar Spectroscopist, Mr. J. Norman Lockyer. Let us hope that after the appearance of so convincing a reply from the man, perhaps of all living the best qualitied to speak ex cathedrá on this special subject, we shall have no more vague guesses and expressions of doubt from people who are confessedly ignorant of the very elements of the problem which they undertake to discuss.

ceiving with the Astronomer Royal that the elliplicity amounts to 003352. I must, however, add that a most elaborate series of investigations, undertaken by Colonel Clarke, of the Engineers, tends to show that the ellipsoid which best represents existing measurements has its major axis (Equatorial) in Longitude 13° 58' 5" E, and that the greatest and least values of the meridian compression are

1 309-364

1 286-779

-in lon

gitude 13° 58' 5" E., and in longitude 103° 58' 5" E The difference of the Equatorial semi-axes is 5308ft. or, roughly, about a mile. It will hence be seen that the figure of the Earth is by no means absolutely synmetrical, nor even that of any solid of revolution. Finally," Investigator's" references to page 130, &co

are presumably te those of some volumof the "Nautical Ale manac," but, in the absence of the name of the work to which they pertain, they are just a little vague.

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The Welsh Shepherd," p. 256, like numberless other people, severely exercises himself about a question upon which 28 much nonsense, physical and metaphysical, has been talked. as has been uttered, about most things. The whole matter seems to lie in a nutshell. If, from the way our eyes are placed in the head, we have to raise them to look at a part of an object, we say that that is the top; if we have to depress them to see another part, we call that the bottom. Our whole notion of up and down is derived from motion; and if the image fell upon the stomach instead of the retina, and we had to raise our body to perceive it, we should say that that part was the highest; if, on the other hand, the body had to be lowered, we should call the part of the image which necessitated such lowering for its perception the lowest. The socalled "inverted image " on the retina, is treated by most people as though, so to speak, we saw that; albeit to do so, we should have to have another eye

Lower on the same page (256), I find two or three queries by Mr. H. W. Bishop, towhich I will reply in order. First, then, just as twilight is fading, is the most favourable time to examine the colour of a star. In the case of a star like Sirius, Mr. B. must remember that from its relative proximity to the horizon, atmospheric dispersion operates in tinging it very perceptibly with colour; and th's is exaggerated by its projection on the black background of the midnight sky. Of course, I am supposing the star to be one of a tolerably low magnitude. Some of the minute red stars require the darkest sky THE "PHANTOM" BICYCLE.-(Described on page 276.) you can get, and some little attention to boot, to discern their colour fairly. | that obtained by the older method. Moon Culminating On the other hand, that lovely pair a Herculis is never Stars, unless observations be very much multiplied and seen to such advantage as in full twilight. I must great care be taken to observe both limbs of the moon, give confess my inability to "give the comparative bright- but indifferent results, and Lunar distances, even in the ness of the chief nebulæ visible in a 3iu. achromatic," hands of skilled observers, are only pretty good; but because I am unaware of any photometric process Occultations of Fixed Stars by the Moon when carefully which is applicable to such a measurement: but if a observed, and rigidly reduced, are very much better still. rough eye estimation of relative visibility be of any Secondly, every visible Occultation is observed at Greenuse to your correspondent, I may tell him that wich, as are the phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites &c. of the nebulæ now favourably situated for These are published at intervals in the " Monthly observation, he ought to see 70 Hersch. I. Virginis, and Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society"; and will have some difficulty with 99 Hersch. 1 Bootis; this answers your correspondent's third query as well. while 418 Hersch. II. Boötis, and 756 Hersch. II. Boötis Next, all the observations at Greenwich of the Moon, will be beyond his power altogether. 13 Messier both with the transit circle on the Meridian, and with Herculis he will either barely resolve, or see as a bright the altazimuth off it, are "for the purpose of detecting SIR,-I send you a drawing of a new style of railnebula, according to the excellence of his instrument. errors of the lunar tables." The Greenwich observa- way just introduced into Lisboa. It runs on one rait 57 Messier, the Ring Nebula in Lyra, will, in a first-tions are published by John Murray, of Albemarle-along the common thoroughfare. In the illustration rate instrument, show traces of luminosity inside of street, London. With regard to the immediately folthe ring proper. This is all vague enough, but I do lowing question, he may take the length of the Polar not see well how to frame my response differently. Be- semi-axis of the Earth at 20853768ft., and that of the fore dismssing this branch of my subject, I may say equatorial semi-axis he may deduce from it by con

behind it!

257), imagine he is adding to a controversy which has What, in the name of fortune; does "F. W. M." (p. been carried on usque ad nauseam, by reiterating what has been said over and over and over again about the Earth and Moon forming parts of one solid globe?

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

NEW STYLE OF RAILWAY.

you see that the engine and carriages have small wheels, which run on the rail, and large ones on the road. The cylinders are under the boiler, just like any other engine. The wheel which the man in front

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