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into the hopper of common sense, comes out in the following simple shape:-How long will £87 at 5 per cent. compound interest take to become £2000? Surely, not even " Algebra personified w allege that algebra is wanted for such a common-place bi arithmetic as this, an ordinar interest sum. Five per cer on £87 will be 87 shillings; add this to £37 and we have £9 /s. This is one year. Then 5 per cent. on £91 78. win se £ 10s. 4d. Add this to £91, &c. This makes two years. We have only to go on with such augmentation, till we get £2000; and then Algebra" will know what time it would take. It would be a shorter "time," both amassing and doing, than he seems to think; and I purposely avoid all "fancy" modes of calculation; I go on the most humdrum footing. But we need not pursue the problem, since it is abundantly clear that our friend did not first ask himself whether his own case possessed even possibility Thanks to his own beclouding algebra, his mind failed to discern that his compound interest not only need not grow where he wants to put it, but also really it would never exist at all in relation to the £2000; of which the superabundant yearly influx of £187 is the proof. In this manner, in the problem of every professed algebraist, there is always some stultifying element, some groundwork fatal to his own platform, so that the hypothesis does not even exhibit verisimilitude. The "problem" is always as if I propounded, Suppose a man had no mouth, and could only drink through his nose? then how many pecks of fried potatoes would he eat? "Eat? you say; how could he eat?" So also our "Algebra's" compound nterest is the eating without a mouth. The science (excuse plainness) is all rubbish. The French Institute decreed that phrenology is too vague to be called a science. Algebra is like phrenology; and, if it would not be civil to say they are both humbugs, we may certainly say they are both mistakes. -GIMEL.

[4122].-DISTILLED WATER.-"Moses " may make a cheap and handy apparatus for this purpose by soldering down the lid of a tin saucepan with a hole cut into the top, nto which a pipe is firmly fastened. Then he should get a small tub-a butter cask for instance-and bore a hole in the side an inch from the bottom. A few yards of ordinary gas-pipe, with one end passed thoough the hole in the tub, the other luted on to the pipe in the lid, and the remaind r coiled up in the tub, will complete a still which I think will answer his purpose. The tube should be filled with cold water (which may require changing now and then), the saucepan three parts full of water put on the fire, something placed at the end of the pipe projecting from the tub to catch the distilled water, and his apparatus will go on with its work without requiring much attention. Of course an old kettle will do as well as a saucepan, and anything that is watertight will answer the purposes of the butter tub.-SAUL

RYMEA.

[4123)-SOLDERING.-The proper flux for brass is borax mixed up with Bath metal solder. If the brass is of inferior quality he must use nearly half black solder, which is generally called spelter soda.-J. M.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

[4127.)-MOUNTING CHART-Would any reader inform me how charts, &c., are mounted on cloth, and the kind of cloth which answers best for the purpose; I have tried several times but owing to the paper expanding and the cloth contracting when wetted, they do not lay quite smooth one on the other? I should also like to know how to varnish charts and drawings. What size and varnish should be used? -CONSTANT READER.

[4128.]-WATCHMAKING.-Will "Nobody," or any kind subscriber kindly inform me how the jewels are fitted to the plates of watches? I know it is the custom of country watchmakers to send their jobs that require new jewels to London and have them fitted; but I should like, if possible, to be able to fit them myself. Another question I should like auswered if any brother reader can do so. What am I to do with a watch that has had a magnet applied to its balance; since hen it has lost about an hour every day. I have been informed by a friend that if all the steel in the movement is dipped in a liquid prepared for the purpose, and then cleaned in the usual way, it will go as well as ever; but, unfortunately for me, he cannot recollect of what the liquid is composed. Can any reader inform me?-COMPENSATED BALANCE.

[412-FISHERMEN'S NETS.-Would some obliging reader inform me how fishermen make their nets, as I wish to make some for the garden. A small sketch showing how the twine is passed would be of service; also what stuff to make them of to prevent them rotting?-SCOLOPENDRIUM. [4130.]-FERN CASE.-I asked lately for a design for a Wardian case for ferns and moss, and received a reply, but the design though substantial enough is clumsy and anything but a parlour ornament, Perhaps you would be kind enough to reinsert the query?-SCOLOPENDRIUM.

[4131.]-SUNDIAL.-At what angle should the gnomon of a dial be placed so as to cast no shadow on the longest day at mean noon supposing it to be placed exactly opposite the point in the horizon where the sun first appears on June 21.W. H. C.

4182]-TELESCOPE.-Is it good work for an sin. reflector to pick up Jupiter when only 90 of the sun, and at what distance from the sun ought the same instrument to pick up Mars and Mercury -W. C.

[4133.]-SIDEREAL TIME.-How to set a sidereal clock at exactly sidereal time, and how to test its performance? W. H. C.

[4134.]-STAINS ON CLOTH.-Will a brother reader kindly inform me if there is anything for removing the red stains from black cloth caused by diluted sulphuric acid or sulphate of copper being spilt on it? -H. A.

[4135.]-STEAMING BOTTLES.-I want a small boiler to steam dirty bottles in a tub. Can any of our readers give me a hint how to plan one that will not cost much, and also state what pressure of steam it will require to boil the water in a tub containing-say 40 gallons?-SIMPLEX. [4186.]-EGG HATCHING MACHINE.-Would some one of your readers give me the information in detail of how to make an egg hatching machine, with the particulars of the process of working, and oblige?-P. G. M.

[4137.)-BRAZING BAND SAWS.-Will some kind correspondent give me instructions on brazing band saws?SUBSCRIBER TO NEW VOLUME.

[4138.]--DESIGNS FOR STAMPING TEA TRAYS, &c. -How could I obtain some good designs for the working of

stamps by steam such as are used in the Black Country for
stamping tea trays, waiters, &c.-C. D.

[4139.]-STAINS IN VENEER.-Will any brother reader
kindly inform me the best way to remove stains from veneer-
ing without injuring the wood -J. B.

[4140. FOREIGN CARMINE.-Where is it made, and how?-A. P. S.

[4141]-ELLIPTOGRAPHI-I have been looking out for some time for an instrument that will describe ellipse, such as is used in isometrical perspective drawing, but have not yet a really practical instrument. Could any of your

seen

readers inform me if such an instrument has been made that

[4159.]-VINEGAR.-Will any reader give a recipe f making vinegar for pickling, and how much malt wochi take to the gallon.-E. H.

J. C. S.

answers the purpose better than drawing lines through
points by the hand, or by the compasses from four centres?-ciple and how made?-CHICO.

THOMAS SMITH.

[4142]-DYEING WOOLLEN CARPETS.-Can any kind reader inform me if there is a work published that gives in detail the processes of the printing and the dyeing of woullen carpets, &c.?-AMICUS.

[4143.]-POTTERY.-Will someone be so good as to tell me how many degrees of heat are required to bake an ordinary china plate, and to give me the calculation whereby this number is arrived at?-MINNEHAHA.

inform me how to make fire clay and earthenware on a small [4144]-FIRE CLAY.-Will any fellow reader kindly scale as I wish to make some pipes for water?-AMICUS. [4145.]-OIL VARNISH.-Will some "brother" kindly inform me of the best known oil varnish for oil paintings of

value?-J. S.

[4146]-BOOKS ON PRINTING.-Would any brother reader tell me where I could procure a good work on printing for young beginners? I know of one, but the price is 7s. 6d. I want something at about 2s.-YOUNG PRINTER. [4147.]-COIN OR MEDAL.-Will one of your numis. matic readers tell me what the following is? It is not quite so large as farthing. Obv.: sinister bust profile of George IV. undraped, laureated legend-Georgius 1V. Dei gratia; 1527 under head. Rev.: Britania seated on shield with trident in left hand, right hand on shield, rose, thistle, and shamrock conjointly under. Legend: Britannia Vex. Fid. Def.-ENERGUE.

[4148.)-RAMSBOTTOM'S PISTONS.-I want to know if it is possible to change the rings of Ramsbottom pistons without taking them off the cylinder, and also if it is possible to make the Cornish high pressure valves to work with one face, as the two faces are always getting out of order?—ONE

IN NEED.

(4149-ELECTRICITY AS A REMEDY FOR EPI LEPSY-I should feel grateful to "W. A." or any of your scientific correspondents informing me if electricity is a remedy for epilepsy, as I have been sufering from it 5 years, and am tired of doctors, besides having lost a good deal of my hard earnings, and received no benefit ?-T. M. [4150.3-BOILER FEEDING.-Cau any correspondent tell me of any method of getting water into a boiler containing compressed air without the use of a pump? A speedy and intelligible answer will greatly oblige?-AMICUS.

botanist

[4151]-BOTANICAL QUERY.-Will some kindly tell me which of the Orchidea is the following. It answers in most particulars to the description of the "Orchis ustulata," only great stress is laid in botany books on its dwarf growth, whereas my orchis is decidedly tall. Sepals dark purple forming a helmet, including the two small petals, lip white, spotted with purple, deeply 3-cleft; spur, short; spike, oblong, rather crowded; root knots, two; leaves, bracts, about half as long as the germ, upper ones, purple; green, lower ones, broad and egg-shaped; height, from 8 to 10 or 12in.; Habitat, meadows in North Yorkshire.-E. M. P. SUBSTANCES.-Can any of your very numerous correspon[4152.-MANUFACTURING GAS FROM VEGETABLE dents tell me where I can find an account of the method of making gas for illuminating purposes from waste vegetable and oily matters. I am informed that Paris is partially lighted with such gas; but I cannot learn how to make it. I wish to learn the method thoroughly in order to practise it abroad in the wilds of South America where I am going. If permission to use it.-DIEGO USON. it be an Engliso patent, I would, of course, willingly pay for

[4153.]-COLOURING WIRE.-Will any kind reader inform me if there is any fluid by which I can coat, or stain colouring pins?-A. E. O. iron wire a dark straw or brass colour; also, what is used for

[4154.]-ENGRAVED STEEL PLATE.-I have a valuable steel plate which, after having had some copies printed, I wish to preserve for future use. Will some correspondent tell me how to prevent its rusting, &c.? It has been returned from the printer's slightly covered with wax.-H. W. H. [4155]-PHOTOGRAPHIC AND DISSOLVING VIEWS. -Could any of our friends who understand optics assist me? I want a half-plate lens for taking photos., and a magic lantern. Is it possibie to have the two combined in one lense with a 42in. condenser? Could any of our kind friends inform me where I could get the lenses, and their cost, and if it is really possible to have the two perfect lenses combined

in one?-A SUBSCRIBER.

[4156.]-BOOK ON WATERWHEELS.-I shall be obliged if any of our fellow readers can refer me to a good practical modern work on the construction of waterwheels, in either the English, French, or German languages?

AQUARIUS.

[4157.)-REED ORFAN.-Having read the various articles by our talented contributors upon the pipe and reed organs and harmoniums, I have come to the conclusion to build one of these, and as I have not the room at my disposal for a pipe organ, I have thought of a reed organ, the (free) reeds of which I would enclose in short pipes. I want 2 manuals and 8 rows of reeds, the stops, I should like being double diapason 16ft., flute 8, fifre 4, bassoon 8, hautbois 8, Hate 8, clarion 4. Should the pipes be circular, or would any difference be made in sound by making them the shape of the reed frame, and what would be the sizes and modifications required for the various stops, also, should the reeds be fixed at an angle with the axis of the pipe, or laid horizontally within it. Would tho "H. B." oblige by giving small diagram of tuning-screw action in Myers Eolophons, and could apply it to the pipes, Also, about what size would the sound board require to be, as I intend to follow "An Adept's" instructions in the woodwork." If "H. B.," "Eleve," or any of our talented writers would favour me with their advice, they would greatly oblige.

J. C. P.

[4158-WATER PUMP-Will any brother subscriber give a rule for finding the number of gallons a pump will lift per min., having a 10in. steam cylinder, a 8in. ram, 10in. stro£e, making 20 strokes per min.-ONE IN NEED.

[4160.]-KILLING MOTHS, &c.-Will any brother revie inform me if there is any liquid to be obtained, that will take the life of moths, flies, &c., without impairing their beauty? nothing of the kind can be had, what is the quickest and be plan of taking the life of insects intended for preservation[4161-REFRIGERATOR.-Will some brother worker as sist me in my troubles? I want tohave some means of keeping ice, for say three days at a time, and believe the only way to keep it is in a refrigerator; can anybody explain the pra [4162.]-STRENGTHENING STEEL WIRE.-Will kindly-disposed wire worker tell me how I can strengt hard drawn plated or steel wire from 30 to 40 guage.-10. [4163.]-LEAD STICKING TO STEEL.-How can I pr vent the lead sticking to steel when hardened in it.-Asos, [4164) SLITS IN STEEL GUAGES.-How are the very fine slits cut in steel gages ?-ANON. [4165.-ASTRONOMICAL.-Wil any of your astronOmical friends give me a plain and easy formula to conver ROUND, Handsworth. heliocentric longitude and lattitude in geocentric-T

(4166 SCRATCHED OBJECT GLASS.-I have an obite glass belonging to a telescope, which is rendered useless br having a number of scratches on it. Will some of your kind readers inform me how they can be removed? If it is necessary to grind and polish it again, how is this done, and what tools would be required?-E. G.

[4167.)-EMIGRATION.-Will Mr. R. Smith, or any other brother reader, kindly inform me where I can obtain, the bes work on the cultivation of Indian corn and other American frrm produce, and also the best work giving the latest and and the newer States in particular. naming the publisher most reliable description of the United States generally, and price in each case?-KANSAS EMIGRANT.

4168.-THE VALUE OF A TESTRIL-Will Mr. Henfrey inform me the exact value of a Testril? The coin is mentioned by Thakespeare in "Twelfth Night," Act 11, scene IL-B.

[4169.)-RUSTED JOINTS.-Can any brother subscriber favour me with how to make a rusted joint?-AMO VOBIS,

[4170.]-SMOKE BURNING.-I should be much obliged to any subscriber who could give me a few hints about the construction of smoke burners in a steam boat the amount of air-heating surface, &c. ?-ENGI NEER IN A FOG.

[4171.)-CHEMICAL.-Will one of our ever obliging chemical servants kindly inform me how I may convert Mu304 into Mn203. My object being to make manganic sulphate by this means?-MANGANIC OXIDE. [4172.]-BORING BAR.-How is a boring bar supported in order to bore out the brasses (while in their places in two standards, so as to have them true with each other.UNPRACTICAL.

(4173.3-CLEANING GALVANISED VESSELS-On behalf of one of the gentler sex, I ask is there any means of cleaning a galvanised vessel used for washing? When the clothes are being boiled, a kind of scum attaches itself to the clothes and is almost immovable.

[4174]-GEOLOGY.-An eye witness to the sinking of a coalpit in west Cumberland. Materials were brought to the tinct traces of vegetable matter, such as leaves, and ever surface from below, slate and shale in abundance, with disstone fruit, but changed or petrifled. At a depth of 249 feet from the surface the mines come upon two trees, as they exexpressed them "Like two gate posts," which were brought to che surface in fragments, but not a trace of the woody fibres could I discover, except the internal flating and the bark cpparently changed into coal. Perhaps some of your numeroas ince those two trees first grew that were found 240 feet below sorrespondents could solve this problem, How long is it

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[4177]-BEES AND BEEKEEPING.-Would "Anon" ("Replies to Queries " No. 3943) kindly inform me of whom Payne's "Bee Book" may be had, and the price; and could he tell me whether an entrance hole should be made in a duplet, or whether the bees should enter through a lower hive? duplets, and how long they may be taken?-APIATOR. Could he tell me also the proper size for glasses to set over

[4178.]-MALLEABLE CAST IRON.-Will any of my brother readers inform me if there is a work published on malleable cast iron? Any information will be thankfully

received?-CASTOR.

[4179]-CRAYON DRAWINGS.-Will any subscriber kindly inform me how to use coloured crayons, how to lay on the colour, when to use the stump, and if when finished to wash it over with anything?-WISHART.

[4180.-A NEW COMET.-I read the following in a Brussels paper:-" Dr. Winnecke, of Carlsruhe, has just discovered a new comet, which is only telescopic. This comet is situated on the east of the sun, above the constellation of the Pisces. It can be observed only after midnight, and a low power will show it. It has the appearance of a nebula, whose diameter was 1-12th of the moon's on the 29th of May last. The movement of this comet seems to be in a plane nearly perpendicular to the celestial equator, as its movement in declination is ten times greater than its movement in right asceusion. On the 29th of May its movement in decli nation was a semi-diameter of the moon. tail for the present." I arxiously waited for the last number of the ENGLISH MECHANIC to see more details about this comet; but no allusion is made to it. Has any of our astronomical friends scen it?-FOREIGNER.

This comet has no

[4181]-CALCULATION OF BOILER PRESSURE — Would some one name to me an engineer's book that would give me the method of calculating correctly the pressure o boilers by size of valve, and length of lever and weight of ball, as there must be above one way of calculating; for instance "One in Need" proposes a question and gets a weight of 561b. from one, and 671b. 10oz. from another, and 58ib. 184 deg from another as the weight to be placed at the end of lever,-THROTTLE VALVE.

(4182-MARKING BOILER PLATES.-Any reader who may he acquainted with the practical methods of marking the templates for boiler plates will greatly favour me by explaining how it is done, giving any simple rules and constructions fe drawing the various lines which may occur to him. As an sample, he could take the case of a Cornish boiler having the shell plates cylindrical, and the flue plates conical, and also carrying a dome on the top. There will, in this case, I suppose, be four templates, viz., two for the shell, one for the doine, and one for the flue.-TEMPLATE.

[4188.)-CHARCOAL BISCUITS.-Can any of your readers oblige me with a good recipe for making charcoal biscuits?-F. C. R.

at

[4181]-LATHE WORK,-If some knowing one work would answer these questions I should feel obliged:How are those two beautiful ivory cups turned in case B. No. 26 in the Kensington Museum is it by the swash plate? I bought in Switzerland at a little shop in the mountains from a wood carver, a match box. From the finish and the mouldings, it had been done in a lathe. But how? He would not tell me, but said it was very difficult. This I do hot believe, or he would have charged more for it, neither was he a man who could invest in an expensive machine; so I know it was simple. The cross section is a flat oval, with a moulding turned at each end, and the lid fits to perfection. The inside is simple enough in the eccentric chuck; but the entside beats me. I see in last number, June 10, a lathe for sale with eccentric chuck, with quadrants. What are quadrants to a chuck; and what is the principle of Lowe's medal

bon cutter?-J. P. G.

4185.]-SILVER COIN.-Will some numismatic reader kindly inform me whose the coin is of which I enclose full

VER
ROMA

clothes with the intensifying solution above-named. May I
also ask our kind Editor to encourage as much as he can
articles on photography, as I am sure there are many ama-
teur photographers who read the MECHANIC, and thoroughly
enjoy the articles on photography.-W. G. C.

[4195]-SENSITIVE FLAMES--Will you or any of my
fellow readers be kind enough to give me some information
with regard to the properties of the sensitive flame, and the
apparatus requisite for producing it.-F. W.

[4196].-CEMENT FOR FASTENING BRASS CAPS TO
BOTTLES.-Will any of my brother readers answer the follow-
ing? What is the best cement for fastening brass caps on
glass bottles so as to stand washing-NEW SUBSCRIBER.
[4197]-WARMING BY MEANS OF HOT WATER-
What is the cause of the rushing and jumping noise in the
hot pipe from boiler to the (cistern hot) circulating prin-
ciple? Why does it not rise as the water heats in the boiler
Also, which is the best prin-
instead of going in pushes?
ciple, the circulating or the pressure? A little information
will oblige.-A NEW SUBSCRIBER.

[4198]-GAS STOVES.-In the ENGLISH MECHANIC
for June 3 I saw the particulars of a gas stove for cooking
purposes. Would "A Dentist" kindly inform, through the
MECHANIC, if the gas stove would bake bread; if it would
I should like to purchase one with four cooking burners, as
by the description given it seems to be the very stove for eco-
nomy, cleanliness, and adaptability for housewifes generally.
-GEORGE.

smooths in flame; a pad of cork is pushed to the bottom of the case to receive the points of needles or other articles. He then places the articles inside, and finishes with a peculiar metal spring, slide, scoop, and cap in one.

[4199]-IRRIGATION.-Can any of your numerous cor-
respondents recommend a plan for irrigating a meadow? The
top part, five acres, is quite a yard or more from the top of
river. Which is the best way to get the wuter up this yard,
as I am disposed to irrigate it if the expense would not be too
much. Is there a practical person amongst your readers
who would give an estimate of what it would cost, and if not
too much I should be glad to have it done.-GEORGE.
[4200). PRECIPITATING COCHINEAL.- Will some
reader tell me what chemical besides bichloride of tin will
precipitate cochineal. Bichrolide of tin is too expensive and
unmanageable. I should also be much obliged by informa-
tion respecting the modt of obtaining a dark (or darkish)
green precipitate. Arseniate of potash and nitrate only gives
a very light, almost white, green, under my hand.-B. A.
[4201-RED LEAD.-Can any one impart to me the
means of preserving (ready mixed) red lead for making
Hitherto I have kept it in
water, but it always got hard in a few days.-STAEM.
[4202)-BALANCING LOCOMOTIVES.-Would one of
your practical readers inform me of a good rule for balancing
a four or six-coupled locomotive. The rule I have been
working to is not to be depended upon.-STAEM.

sized copy? It is, I believe, a Roman denarius, rather thick, steam tight joints in a soft state.
and of pure silver. Is it rare ?-H. R. G.

[4186.-SHEATHING IRON SHIPS WITH COPPER. -With reference to No. 2466, page 140 of present volume, may I ask "Patience and Perseverance," or any other willing to oblige me with the information, who is the patentee or inventor of the plan for covering ships' bottoms with a thick coating of some adhesive material painted on hot, and copper in minute particles, dredged on and rolled to make a smooth surface; also, how long is it since this composition was first tested or made public. Any information on the subject will much oblige?-J. M

-0.

[4187.]-STEAM CARRIAGES.-TO G. PREW.-Would G. Prew, whose steam carriage is illustrated in last week's paper be kind enough to favour his fellow readers with a more minute description of it, especially the boiler?-LITTLE

JOHN.

[4188.] SOFTENING ASH TIMBER-I want to bend some ash timber 2in. square; boiling or steaming does not make it soft enough. Would any of our chemical writers inform me if anything could be put in the boiling water that would make the timber softer ?-J. L. B.

[4189.]-CONDENSER-I should feel greatly indebted to "Sigma" if he would have the goodness to inform me what size of condenser I ought to make for a coil of the following dimensions:-Iron core 6in. x fin., 3 layers of primary wire and 21 layers of secondary, half No. 30 and half No. 32; No. 30 wire being wound on first, and then No. 32. If he would also tell me what size of Bansen battery would be suitable, I should be still more indebted to him?-ELECTRON.

[4190.]-EMIGRATION TO THE CAPE AND WEST INDIES-I shall be glad to know what advantages the Cape, or any of the islands in the West Indies-Jamaica or Trinidad -offer to an intending colonist? I see Mr. Rogers proposes Kansas as a suitable place for emigrants. Will he kindly inform us if the Government of that State is thoroughly united and settled, and whether there is anything to be feared from the Indians who occupy its western portion ?R. R.

[4191]-DOG MUZZLE-Will some brother reader tell
me through our MECHANIC how to make a wire dog muzzle?
I hear of them being made so that the animal can drink and
not bite. As hydrophobia is just now very prevalent, and as
the doctors tell us the ordinary leather muzzle tends to
increase it.
I think the subject is worthy of the attention of

my fellow readers.-BUNTING.
[4192.]-CUTTING GRANITE.-I have a piece of granite
ont of which I wish to take a piece an inch square, and polish
it by hand. Could any brother reader inform me how I can

do it?-CHEMICUS.

(4193.-COINS.-Can you or any of my brother readers inform me in your valuable paper what the two following

ROM

OBV.

ENA

S.P.OR

REV.

KRTHA

USEFUL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.

PRESENCE OF MANGANESE IN MILK AND IN BLOOD.—The presence of monganese, as an essential constituent of milk and blood (human, as well as animal), bas been known for about 20 years past, but M. Pollacci gives in a French scientific journal some particulars about the method of detection of this metal in the two animal fluids referred to, of which milk contains this metal in the largest proportion; the milk is first evaporated (300 grins. are taken) to the constituency of a paste; this is carbonised by heat in a platinum crucible; the charcoal thus obtained is pulverised, and next completely incinerated; the ash is triturated in an agate mortar and lixiviated with water, in order to eliminate the salts soluble therein, especially chlorides; the residue is treated with very pure nitric acid, and the solution thus obtained is evaporated to dryness and calcined in a test tube; after cooling, a few drops of nitric acid are added, and the contents of the tube again boiled; next, a few grains of puce-coloured oxide of lead are added, and the liquid again boiled; a more or less deeply purplishcoloured liquid appears on leaving the tube at rest for a short time, which is due to the formation of permanganic acid. No quantitative researches have, as yet, been made by the author.

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TINNING OF IRON WITHOUT THE AID OF HEAT. The chief point of interest in this matter is, that the tinning of iron in the cold cannot succeed at all, unless the bath used for that purpose contains, in solution or suspended, an organic substance like starch or glucose, although no precise scientific explanation of this indispensable condition has been hitherto given; the breveté employs the following bath-To 100 litres of water are added 3 kilos. of rye meal; this mixture is boiled for half an hour, and next filtered through cloth; to the clear but thickish liquid are added 106 kilos. of pyrophosphate of soda, 17 kilos, of protochloride of tin in crystals (so-called tin-salt), 67 kilos. of of neutral protochloride of tin, 100 to 120 grms, of sulphuric acid; this liquid is placed in well made wooden troughs, and serves more especially for the tinning of iron and steel wire (previousiy polished) for the use of carding machines. When instead of the two salts of tin just named, cyanide of silver and cyanide of potassium are taken, the iron is perfectly silvered.-COSMOS.

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LIGHT IN RELATION TO OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS.-At the usual weekly meeting of the Biringham Natural History and Microscopical Society on the 31st ult., Mr. C. J. Woodward, B. Sc., read a paper on "Light in Relation to Optical Instruments.' He commenced by observing that in order to understand the manner in which light is propagated, the transmission of force by waves must be understood, and especially the transmission of vibration by the atmosphere. According to the accepted hypothesis, light is propogated in a manner analogous to that of sound. The medium, ether, receiving the pulsations of a luminous body, transfers them to the retina of the eye, and thus produces in us the sensation of light. The ether waves are themselves invisible; a so-called beam of light being invisible except there be haze or dust to intercept it. The constitution of a luminous body, as an assemblage of luminous points, was explained and illustrated. The law of inverse squares, and its application in determining the relative brightness of two lights, was illustrated by several experiments. A statement of the laws governing the reflection, of light concluded the paper.

DECREASE OF THE RAINFALL IN FRANCE. -S. Meunier states that it appears more and more certain that the annual quantity of rain in France is rapidly decreasing; the cause is attributed to the cutting down of forests, and to the fact that no sufficient care is taken to keep the mountains well covered with suitable vegetation, so as to enable their soil to grow trees in abundance.

TELEGRAPHIC IMPROVEMENT.-The American Telegrapher describes a valuable improvement in relay maguets, by W. W. Smith, of Cincinnati. Ohio. The improvement consists in arranging the connections of a relay so that the main circuit is divided, one half passing through each helix, and uniting again on the opposite side, instead of having the conducting wire of the two spools continuous, as in the usual manner. It will be seen upon a moment's reflection, that, by changing the connections of a magnet of the usual form, and arranging them upon Mr. Smith's plan, that the total resistance will be reduced of the original amount, while the two helices will exert their magnetic influence in conjunction upon the soft iron cores, as usual.

TOBACCO AND ITS ADULTERATIONS.-ACcording to Johu C. Draper, who contributes an able article, against the use of tobacco, to the Galaxy, for June, the adulteration of tobacco varies greatly with the character of the preparation. In that intended for chewing, it consists chiefly of molasses or common salt, rarely of leaves of other plants. In cigars and cut tobacco for smoking it is by no means common and consists usually of hay, paper, or leaves of the dock, rhubarb, cabbage, elm, and oak, all of which are, comparatively speaking, harmless. In snuff, on the contrary, adulteration is very common, and the substances used are, in many cases, exceedingly injurious, including such articles as chromate of lead, bichromate of potash, powdered glass, and different kinds of ochers or oxides of iron. The latter are nearly always found in the Scotch snuffs, and rarely occur in the Welsh and Irish.

REWARDS TO INVENTORS.-Amongst recent Parliamentary papers issued, is one which gives copies of reports and correspondence as to the rewards to inventors proposed in the army estimates for the current financial year. These rewards are as follow:-A grant of £100 to Mr. C. F. Guthrie for an ingenious and efficient rolling-bridge applicable to defensive works It is proposed to pay the sum of £500 to Mr. S. A.. Goddard for his improvements in breech-londing eannon. In the case of Mr. Parsons, who alleged that the Palliser gun was really invented by him, the matter has been referred to Mr. Gregory, the president of the Institute of Civil Engineers. The Treasury has sauctioned a grant of £500 to Commander Colomb, as a final reward on account of his signals for naval and military use. The Treasury has also resolved to ask Parliament for £1700, to be granted to the representatives of the late Jacob Snider, for his invention of breech. loading rifles.

EMIGRATION.-Private letters from Melbourne represent the labour market as much overstocked, GLASS NEEDLE-CASES.-The following is a although immigration is still encouraged by a large description of a needle-case that would appear to pos- party. The fact is that Victoria is at the present sess more neatness and compactness than most devices inoment passing through a severe crisis. Mining procoins are :-No. 1. Obv., a crowned bust to left, legend, of the kind. A tube is used of glass, opaque, white,perty has become greatly depreciated in valu, partly "Isabella Def. Fid.;" rev., a crown between two laurel opal, lavender, turquoise, black, or other colour. The from the natural exhaustion of the works which have branches, legend, "Hispanola, Brazil, 1770." I enclose draw-inventor draws with the blow-pipe a long point at been long in operation, and partly from the Numerous ing of the other.-ONE WHO WANTS TO KNOW. every three inches of the tube. He separates the instances of fraud in the so-called "aurifor us disco[4194-PHOTOGRAPHY-STAINS, &c.-May I ask lengths, and with the flame of the blow-pipe melts veries," and the country has now been so thorongaly Aoine kind subscriber to inform me how to take out stains of down the point, forming a nib as a finish at bottom prospected," that it is hardly likely that any rich by rugallic acid and silver? I am constantly sprinkling my He then grinds the other end flat, and I deposit will remain unrevealed.

of case.

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ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

All communications should be addressed to the, EDITOR of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, 31, Tavistockstreet, Covent Garden, W.C.

The following are the initials, &c., of letters to hand up to
Friday morning, June 24, and unacknowledged elsewhere

H. Larkin, W. Richardson, J. H. T., Col. J. R., W. K., H.
Dolan, R. Biddle, C. Smith, J. F. Rev. G. G., W. B.,
W. H. W., J. Crowther, J. Peters, W. Moor, jun.; Right
Rev. T. L. Veritas, W. Clarke, J. C. F.K., E. T., J. Halley,
The Harmonious Blacksmith, Rev. E. Kernan, A Practical
Man, W. R. Birt, J. H. J., Wm. Johnson, J. H., A. Tolhau-
sen, Jet, J. B., Peregrine, T. H. S., A. B. C. D.. T. N., E.
Perry, A. P., Llah, W. A., Veritas, G. E. J., W. Morton,
T. J.O. C., Alex. Forbes, Jas. Leigh, Ch. Rabache, J. H., W.
Current, W. B. J., W. B. C., J. Gillott.

HITHERTO, during summer time, there has been a marked
falling off in our correspondence. It is not so this season.
In fact, the number of our correspondents-and we can
never have too many of them-is increasing. This is the
best sign of the growing nterest felt in the ENGLISH ME-
CHANIC. Mr Batty, of Fennell-street, Manchester, in a
letter just received, says :-"The ENGLISH MECHANIC is
becoming quite an institution of the country." So the
Loudon postmen think, who have to bring hourly to our
office large bundles of letters. We have had to provide
them an extra fee when the "Christmas Box" fund is col-
lected. We have had to postpone this week F. R. A. S.'s
communication on The Light of the Stars, Mr. Proctor on
Meteors, Algebra by Gimel, Brazilian Railways by J. G.,
Comets by W. F. Dunning, To Millers by F. Davis, Hydro-
static Weighing Machine by A. B. Duckham, three letters
on Music and Musical Instruments by Harmonious Black-
smith, The Sun's Parallax by Hugo, letters on Trade and
Commerce, Lunar Actinity by W. R. Best, The Herne
Knitting Machine by a Practical Man, Practical Hints to
Millers, Cotton Spinning, Bicycle Riding by S. James,
&c., &c.
TOURISTS' TRIPS.-Our invitation for information for tourists
has been most liberally responded to-in fact, to such an
extent that we cannot insert all the letters on the subject

which have reached us. We did not want exactly glowing

descriptions of beautiful scenery, over which some of our correspondents have gone into raptures, but districts pointed out and objects described which would be particularly interesting to scientific tourists. Devoniensis is thanked for his description of Barnstaple, J. J. McCartey for his North [Wales, A Mechanic for his description of same district, and A. Crofts for his particulars of Dover. ALFRED MILLEDGE.-No stamps enclosed.

ULSTER. One of the bsst remedies for tender feet this time
of the year, is to wash them daily, or twice daily.
E.W.-We cannot afford space for an illustrated notice, of a
bicycle, in order to elicit opinion thereon. E. W. must be a
very inattentive reader of the ENGLISH MECHANIC for
many years past, or he would not have sent such a thing.
G. M. Rather too speculative for our columns.
J. E. KEY-We cannot inform you.

J. W. R. We read your letter and threw it aside, and the
following day we read it and threw it aside a second time.
It contained some good information, and some equally
good criticism; but it was vitiated by incivilities towards
another correspondent, and, therefore, rejected. Though
men may differ, there is no reason why they should not
credit each other with good intentions, and treat each as
gentlemen, and particularly when they enter on scientific
matters, and have no selfish interest to promote.

J. W.--You should always put the drawing on a separate sheet of paper from that on which the description appears, as we like to send the description to the printer, and the drawing to the engraver simultaneously.

J. WAREHAM must consult indexes.

The Sixpenny Sale Column is the only place in which can

some ill-natured remarks about it in the Astronomical
Register for the current month. It would be utterly absurd
to mulet the ENGLISH MECHANIC of the best parts of its
power by a too rigid exclusion of all but strictly scientific
matter." We noticed the remarks referred to, but took no
notice of them on account of the insignificance of the jour-
nal named. It does not circulate as many dozens as the
ENGLISH MECHANIC circulates thousands. The informa-
tion it contains is very stale and very dear, as a shilling
part contains about as much information as four of our
pages.

G. F. S. thinks the idea of connecting two bicycles, and mak-
fog a four-wheel veloce, as suggested by a new reader, last
week, a happy one.

C. G. R.-You ask too much. It is not fair that our generous
correspondents should also be asked to communicate infor-
mation through the Post Office.

H. CHILDS.-When built send a drawing.

W. E. SEDGLEY. Two other letters on shorthand,' all
taking your side, are inserted this week.

J. DODSHON.-We don't know the address.
J. W CASTLY.-See answer to W. E. Sedgley.
GEO. FREEMAN.-See answer to G. F. S.
INDUCTORIUM.-Next week.

J. A. T.-See answer to C. G. R.

P. W. G.-No doubt you have been taken in. The advertise-
ment shall not be inserted again. No one, if we can help it,
shall use our advertisement columns for dishonest purposes.
Now the horse is gone, no doubt P. W. G. will close the
stable door. Be more careful in future.

JOHN JEFFREY-We do not send receipts privately for love or
money. The query column is open to you.

J. HAMSON.-Thanks for suggestion about indices.
G. F. S. says he has discovered a new motive power which
would, provided it could be applied, achieve wonders; but
he has not the means to patent it. Has G. F. S. tested the
discovery by experiments? If he is certain, let him comr
municate with some capitalist of knwn honesty, and iu all
probability he will not be denied. Trust begets trust.
JOHN A. LEY.-What blocks do you want?
TRADE AND COMMERCE.-Received letters from Fact Col-
lector, Percy Johnson, F. W. M., and Foreign Clerk.
ROWLAND A. ELLIOTT, of St. Helen's, sends his congratula-
tions on the improvements in the ENGLISH MECHANIC,
G. M. LITTLF. The tourist trip given is not sufficiently
detailed. The same correspondent says that Adept again
appears in print; he hopes he will favour him with a reply to
J. D. MORGANS-Please send description to accompany
his query (3337) respecting organ pipes.

engravings, which are prepared.

C. H. W. B.-The continuation of Mathematics came to hand.
W. H. HUNT.-You should take no notice of Isaac W. Wolfe.
He made so many blunders, and wrote about matters on
which he knew nothing, that as a correspondent we simply
had to show him the door. We refused to insert any more
of his letters, and have several by us unused at the present
time. So to revenge himself, he abuses us elsewhere. Let
him do so if it affords him ary amusement; he cannot pos-
sibly hurt us. The journal in which he writes has become
the receptacle of our rejected correspondence.

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appear queries sent by James Levesque, A.S., and D.P.M. APPLICATIONS FOR LETTERS PATENT DURING THE H. LOCKE.-No stamps. Exchange not inserted.

JAMES LIGHT.-Yes.

TATIUS.-The rubbings of the coin you send are not plain enough for our engrauer. It is best to send sketches.

F. N. B.-See back numbers.

T. TADE. Your suggestion is impracticable.

E. BONCER. We cannot, as we do not know either your capabilities or position.

F. W.-First part of query inserted. For second, see recent back numbers.

WEEK ENDING JUNE 20, 1870.

ments known as specula
1700 R. Blackbee, Dalston, improvements in surgical instru-

1701 H. Hammond, Manchester, an improved apparatus for
mixing soils and chemical manures.-A communication
1702 W. Moore, Preston, improvements in securing bolts and

nuts

1703 W. A. Chandler, 79. Sun-street, Bishopsgate-street, London, improvements in railway and other carriage wheels 1704 A. Ford, 21, Eigin-crescent, an improved method of applying moisture and beat, medicated or otherwise, to the animal frame

1705 G. Wells, 12, North-street. Westminster, apparatus for ventilating ships and for extinguishing fires on board same.A communication

1706 B. G. Sloper, Northfleet, improvements in the treatment

of sewage

H. DOLAN (Leeds).-The stamps were duly received and the
numbers forwarded to the only address you gave-viz,
"Leeds." They were returned through the Post Office, the
Leeds postmen not being able to find you. Your second
letter only contains the same vague address. Please send 1707 G. Weir, Glasgow, and J. Weir, Liverpool, improvements
your exact address and eight stamps for the re-postage of in slide valves
the numbers. You have given yourself, us, and the Post-forming bats of wool for feiting purposes.-A communication
1708 A. V. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, an improved mode of
Office a deal of unnecessary trouble.
1709. H. Johnson, apparatus for pressing and forming heels
for boots and shoes-A communication

J. BRADBURY.-We cannot say. Try S. and B. Solomons,
Albemarle-street.

CROYDE. We cannot.

A

BLACKSMITH (Ontario). With every wish to oblige you, we
dare not allow you to ask for the information through our
pages. The eye is far too sensitive to be treated by un-
skilled persons.
Let your boy see a medical man at once
and don't tamper with his eyes yourself.
WORKMAN'S APPEAL "The Harmonious
smith "has written us in reply to a "Blacksmith's" com-
plaint in a letter, under the above heading in our last
number, that he (the "Harmonious Blacksmith,") does not
write enongh on subjects of interest his to" brother blacks."
The "H. B." has no desire to benefit any one class as such,
but wishes he were" privileged to suggest means for benefit-
ing all classes" If any fellow-correspondent "does him the
honour to think that he can keep him to any lawful know-provements in looms for weaving
ledge he may command his help." Our own pages bear wit-
ness that this is no ere idle offer, and we think that a
"Blacksmith" was jus 'a trifle unreasonable and incorrect,
when he complained that the "H. B." wrote on nothing but
musical instruments. He has written on many other things
and has never withheld any information asked of him, which
was in his power to give. It should be mentioned, however,
that he is only half a" Blacksmith "and very "Harmonious
hence he doubtless possesses more information (the fruit of
long experience) on musical subjects than some others.
THE ENGLISH MECHANIC.-Mr. R. A. Proctor says:-"The
ENGLISH MECHANIC will grow to be, if it is not already,
the most powerful scientific organ in England. There are

1710 F. Dupuy, Bayoune, an improved anti-hemorrhoidal
apparatus or anti-hemorrhoidal plate
171: C. H, Perman, improvements in coal vases
1712 A. B. Berard, 21, Avenue Montaigne, Paris, improve-
ments in the manufacture and fusion of cast iron
1713 H. Law, 15, Essex-street. Strand, improvements in
apparatus for the supply of water to waterclosets
1714 M. Jacob, Maida Hill, improvements in the means or
apparatus employed for retaining the windows of railway
Black-carriages.

1715 R, Miller. Gartcosh, improvements in the manufacture
of clay or earthenware pipes

1716 J. H. Johnson, improvements in the treatment and in
the employment of certain animal substances to be used as
fertilizing agents.-A communication

1717 J. Fossard, improved bellows for lighting fires
1718 W. J. Hopkins, Worcester, improvements in the con-
struction of roots and sides of houses
1719 W. Gadd, and J. Moore, Manchester, manufacturer, im-

1720 . B. Fox, Oxton, improvements in Venetian blinds
1721 W. A. Clayton, Birkenhead, improved combinations of
screw propellers and steering apparatus.

1722 E. C. Rolls. Chatham, Ontario, Canada, harmoniums
ana other reed instruments of music.-A communication
1723 J. Swain, Oldham, improvemeuts in the construction of
furnaces for the manufacture of iron and steel

1724 W. R. Lake, Southampton-buildings, improvements in
steel washers.-A communication

1725 J. H. Brierley, 58, Aldermanbury, improvements in the ornamenting of fastenings for braces

1798 W. E. Newton, improvements in paint brushes.-A communication

1726 W. E. Newton, improvements in machinery for binding wrapping, and forming cigars.-A communication

1:27 B. P. Weatherdon, 77. Chancery-lane, an improved machine for breaking stones.-A communication

1729 H. H. Kromschroeder. 90, Camden-street, Camden-townS, and W. P. Randall, 9. Dorset-street, Vauxhall-bridge-red, inprovements in gas meters. 1730 G. S. Fleming, 148, Drury-lane, a cork, stopper, or plur 1731 W. Hadfield, Manchester, improvements in looms for weaving in machinery for the indenting of iron for shoe-heel tips 1732 G. Farmer, Summer-lane, Birmingham, improvement

1733 C. Joseph, south-place, Keanington-park, improvements in gas burners.-A communication

1784 J. E. Lee, Oughtibridge, near Sheffield. improvementsia the manufacture of tut and forge hammer heads, and in bursa and tail hoops

1735 W. B. Smith, Tucking-mill, Cornwall, an improved cust ing for Bickford's safety fuze

1736 C. A. Bluemel, York-street, Globe-road, improvemena in walking-sticks and in sticks or handles tor umbrell parasols, and sunshades

1757 H. E. Newton, improvements applicable to looms weaving.-A communication

1738 J. A. Lindblad, Sheffield, improvements in bottl flasks, and an improved device for uncorking said bottas flasks

1730 W. Ambler and B. Jowett, Bradford, a self-acting u dicator or machine for showing the times of trains

1740 G. O. Wray, Hestholm, improvements in fasten ing fr boxes, wine cases, and other articles

1741 T. Greenwood and J. Fabian, Hoxton, an improvement in billiard and bagatelle cnes

1742 H. Bessemer, Queen-street-place, improvements in steam vessels and waiting vessels, for the purpose of lessening the motion of certain parts thereof, and for lessening or prevent ing sea-sickness

1745 L. A. Ritterbandt. 40. Eastbourne-terrace, Hyde-park improvements in the manufacture of peat charcoal

1744 C. M. Campbell, Stoke-upon-Trent, improvements in t manufacture of mosaic plaques or slabs

1715 Sir J. Whitworth, improvements in fire-arms and ed. nance, and in rifled projectiles and machinery for the mang ture of the same

1744 T. J. Smith, 166. Fleet-street, improvements in producing caustic soda and caustic potash.-A communication 1717 E. Partridge, Smethwick, improvements in axle-boxes and in means of securing the same upon the axle

1748 A. M. Clark, 53, Chancery-iane, improvements in bells and in the mode of hanging the same-A communication 1749 A. S. Stocker, Thomas-street, Horsleydown, improve ments in bottles and stoppers and other articles to be employed therewith

1750 T. J. Smith, 186. Fleet-street, improvements in treating copper pyrites -A communication

1751 W. E. Gedge, 11, Wellington-street, Strand, improve. ments in machinery for cutting corks.-A communication 1752 J. O. Ewing and J. J. Coleman, Glasgow, improvementa in treating or preparing certain lubricating oils

cation of wool and other simular animal material in their pro 1753 J. J. Lundy. Leith, an improved compound for the lubr

cesses of manufacture

1751 B. J. B. Milis, 35, Southampton-buildings, improvements in doffing and dividing apparatus applicable to continoas cards. A communication

1755 A. M. Clark, 53. Chancery-lane, improvements in appara tus for raising sunken bodies, and in the mode of operating the same.-A communication

1758 C. D. Abel 20, Southampton-buildings, a new or im proved mode of and apparatus for testing the quality of the malleable metals and aitoys,-A communication 1757 L. Heita, 15, King's-road, Islington, improvements in blacking for boots, shoes, and other articles 1758 J. de Weweirne, Ghent, improvements in dyeing

PATENTS SEALED.

3681 E. T. Hughes, garment for sanitary purposes.-A.com munication

385 J. Wild, Rochdale, improvements in the manufacture of pile fabrics 301 G. C. Fraser, improved means of disinfecting or drying clothes, bedding, &c.

3692 H. M. Marsden, improvements in the manufacture of sheep shears

3491 W. E. Gedge, a self-acting apparatus for preventing accidents from steam machinery.-A communication

3693 J. Martin, fabrics and materials repellent of water, and in apparatus therefor

3712 R. Turner, improvements in machinery for preparing, twisting, or spinning cotton and other fibrous materials 3733 W. H. Baxter, improvements in machinery or apparatus for weighing or measuring corn

8736 F. F. Benvenuti. An ingraved feeding inkstand

85 R. D. Dwyer, an improved mode of roofing buildings 98 W. E. Newton, improvements in the manufacture of sugar. A communication

103 H. E. Newton, improvements in billiard-table cushions. -A communication

172 G. H. Gossip, improvements in the manufacture of umbrellas and parasols

291 C. W. Fuller, improvements in the construction of bottles intended to contain nerated and other liquids 374 J. Tenwick, improvements in holding fingers used in reaping or mowing machines, or other machines of like character 551 W. B. Newton, improvements in windmills.-A communi

cation

631 A. V. Newton, improvements in Auid meters.-A communication

640 W. E Gedge, an improved apparatus for subcutaneous extractions and injections. -A communication 735 J. Dunnachie, improvements in stoves for drying bricks and other articles in pottery

819 G. W. Fox, improvements in the treatment of cod-liver. castor, and other inedicinal oils

932 A. Ody, improvements in weighing machines 1006 W. Iestv, improvements in compositions for coating ships' bottoms and other like purposes

1098 W. Simpson and A Garduer, engines worked by steam or other motive power

1141 W. Brown, improvements in the construction of thrust blocks, plummer blocks, and such like mechanism used in steam ships

munication
1252 W. R. Lake, an improved valve or stop-cock.-A com

3711 W. McKenzie, T. McKenzie, and J. McKenzie, improve. ments in apparatus for sharpening the cutters of mowing

machines.-A communication

379 R Thomas, a new or improved apparatus for propelling steam ships

3731 J. Hargreaves and T. Robinson, improvements in the treatment of pyrites and in obtaining products therefrom 3735 T. G. McDiarmid, improvements in the rig of ships and

vessels

8741 S. Walker and E. Holt, improvements in steam pumping

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The English Mechanic

AND

behoves us to say something of the nature and constitution of light itself.

We derive, then, the notion of what we call light from the impression on the eye caused by the undulations in a medium which apparently pervades all space, and which has been called

MIRROR OF SCIENCE AND ART. not very appropriately-the luminiferous ether.

FRIDAY, JULY 8, 1870.

ANNOUNCEMENT.

THE following is the publishers' announcement THE in the last number of Scientific Opinion:74, Great Queen Street, London, W.C. 29th June, 1870.

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Be this medium what it may, this much is certain, that each ray of light travels through space by absolutely equal and regular steps or vibrations. The number of these in any given ray is perfectly measurable and invariable, but is different for different rays; so that, in point of fact, we can identify any given ray by the length of its vibrations, steps, oscillations, or whatever we may call them. Now, although the number of vibrations performed in a second by the luminiferous ether varies, as we have intimated, for each colour, yet, in vacuo, the actual velocity of all rays is equal; "This week's issue of Scientific Opinion com- so that white light has been happily compared to pletes its third volume, and brings the existence a crowd of men and children all running at preof this publication, in its present form and under cisely the same rate but with steps of various its original Editor, to a close. The proprietor-lengths, the shortness of the children's steps being compensated for by their frequency. Of the ship and conduct of Scientific Opinion have now equality of this velocity of all the differentlypassed into other hands, and this journal will coloured rays, we have evidence from the everyhenceforth be incorporated with THE ENGLISH day observation of astronomers that the aberraMECHANIC AND MIRROR OF SCIENCE, an illustrated tion of all these rays is identical. We have spoken, on page 120 of our last volume, of the weekly periodical of great popularity, and one eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, and a little reflecenjoying a very large circulation, tion will show that if, say, the violet rays travelled quicker than the red, when the satellite plunged into the shadow of the planet it would change colour, fading out from white to red through the various colours of the spectrum, the red rays being the last perceptible, as the last to reach the earth. For the same reason the satellite ought to appear violet or blue at the commencement of its reappearance. As a matter of fact we know that it retains its white colour up to the instant of becoming invisible, and emerges from the planet's shadow again without presenting a tinge or tint of

64

Correspondents in all future communications are therefore requested to observe the change of address, and to note that the day of publication is altered from Wednesday to Friday

in each week.

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Subscribers will continue to receive Scientific Opinion in its altered form in completion of their prepayments; and it is hoped they will find increased inducements, in the more extended

scope of THE ENGLISH MECHANIC AND MIRROR OF SCIENCE, to renew the patronage originally accorded to Scientific Opinion.

"Books for Review, Advertisements, &c., &c., should henceforth be addressed respectively to the Editor and Publisher, at the Office, No. 31, Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C."

WE

any kind.

Unwilling as we are to encumber the student with more detail than is absolutely necessary for the comprehension of this somewhat difficult subject, we shall abstain from any description of the manner in which the length of the various undulations, their number in an inch, and the number of them which are performed in a second, have been ascertained. A tolerably accurate table of these data (at all events, as a differential one) will be found on page 35. It will be more to our present purpose to examine the bearing which they have upon the matter which we have undertaken to discuss.

THE FLIGHT OF A STAR. BY A FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY. have, on a former occasion, referred to Well, then, as we have said above, light of all the fact that our great English philosopher, colours or degrees of refrangibility travels at Mr. William Huggins, F.R.S., has succeeded, by identically the same rate in vacuo. But suppose the aid of the spectroscope, in determining not that a ray of white light falls upon a prism (p. 145) only that the most brilliant star in our heavens how will that affect its rate or mode of motion? (Sirius) is travelling away from the earth, but In this way: it will be retarded, or the rate of even, within very narrow limits of error, the rate propagation of the undulatory motion will be in miles per second at which that glorious luminary diminished. In other words, the progress of the is winging its stupendous flight through the depths ray will be slower in any refracting medium than of space. Since then several communications have in vacuo. And besides, our prism, in refracting been addressed to the ENGLISH MECHANIC, Con- the rays unequally, really retards them unequally, taining the expression of a wish for more definite delaying the violet the most and the red the least; information on this subject than the bare reference so that the latter travel the fastest and the former above alluded to affords. We now, therefore, the slowest, intermediate colours progressing at propose to endeavour to give some notion of the intermediate rates. principles on which Mr. Huggins's very extraordinary results have been arrived at. We cannot hope to do any more; and even to effect this in an intelligible way, debarred as we are from the use of mathematics, will tax all our powers of popularizing a very abstruse subject, and all those of attention on the part of the reader of this article.

It is almost unnecessary to add that all that we have said with reference to the visible rays of the spectrum, applies equally to the dark lines crossing it (Fig. 5, p. 172), and that the rate, length, and frequency of the vibrations necessary to produce light of their precise refrangibility, are susceptible of mathematical determination with all conceivable accuracy. This, as will be In the acquisition of knowledge in any fresh seen in the sequel, is a point of the utmost imbranch of physics, or in the pursuit of any novel portance. Assuming this to be all clear to the form of scientific investigation, more or less inti- mind of the reader, we now proceed to derive an macy with other branches of science must be, of illustration from a wholly different branch of necessity, presupposed; and it would simplify science-acoustics; for, although sound is propaour task exceedingly if we could legitimately assume the acquaintance of the student with the andulatory theory of light. Inasmuch, however, as we are writing for those who may have been debarred, by want of time or opportunity, from the chance of familiarizing themselves with this special subject, we must, in the outset, give such short exposition of its leading features as to render what is to follow intelligible. A careful re-perusal of our series of articles on "What Stripes the Sunbeam will, further, be essential to its proper understanding.

In treating of the dispersion of light by means of a prism (on p. 145), we merely enunciated the fact of such dispersion without making any attempt to theorize upon the subject. however,

It now,

gated through the air at the rate only of 1,090 feet in a second, and light travels at least 900,000 times as fast, yet the circumstance of their both having their origin in undulatory movement albeit of very different media-enables us to employ one of these effects to explain the other. The waves, then, of the deepest note of an organ pipe audible (as a musical sound and not a mere noise) are about 64 feet in length, and occur some seventeen times in a second; these we may conceive to be analogous to red light. The length of the waves of a cricket's chirp are certainly less than an inch long, and between 30,000 and 40,000 of them are formed in the same interval; we may imagine these to correspond with the violet rays. Now, in saying this, we have assumed both the

source of sound and the ear of the auditor to bo stationary. A very little consideration will show that, if either of them be in motion, the resulting sound will be modified. For, suppose that a note is being sounded on a horn such as to induce 440 vibrations or waves in the air in a second of time, if we approach the trumpeter at a rate bearing anything like an appreciable proportion to that at which the sound is travelling, more of these waves will reach the ear in a second, and the pitch of the note will rise; if, on the contrary, we travel away from our imaginary musician with any considerable velocity, the waves of sound will have to overtake us; fewer of them will reach us in a second, and the pitch of the note will fall. M. Buys Ballot, between twenty and thirty years ago, experimented on this subject on a railway in Holland; and his experiments were subsequently repeated in this country by Mr. Scott Russell, who brought them under the notice of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1848. Both M. Ballot and Mr. Russell found that the whistle of a rapidly-approaching train sounds a higher note than when the train is stationary, and as it recedes from the listener it sounds a lower note. We believe that in the case of some experiments with a moving train and a stationary observer this difference amounted to a semitone; and that, when the auditor was himself travelling in a train which met and passed the one whose whistle was blowing, the resulting sound differed a whole note from that yielded by the same whistle when both the locomotive and the experimenter were standing still.

All this may assist us in comprehending how motion, towards or from any luminiferous bodyif such motion be sufficiently great to bear a measurable proportion to the velocity of lightmay either exalt or depress the refrangibility of the rays which reach the spectator, and so shift the rays-and, of course, the dark lines-either up towards the violet end or down towards the red end of the spectrum, according as we are approaching to or receding from the source of light.

One more consideration will help us in the apprehension of a point of detail in Mr. Huggins's very wonderful researches, and that consideration is this. Throughout our papers on "What Stripes the Sunbeam," we have tacitly assumed-without, however, anywhere actually asserting that the bright spectral lines of various incandescent vapours are not only invariable in position under all circumstances, but also in thickness, we having purposely suppressed all reference to the fact that the breadth of the lines is affected by the density of the gas. To take an example, of which we shall now very soon make use, the line F (p. 172) is very sensibly expanded when hydrogen at the ordinary atmospheric pressure is employed instead of that in an ordinary vacuum tube, with which comparisons are usually made. The reason of our former reticence on this and other minor points had its origin in our indisposition to overload a subject already sufficiently complicated with a quantity of detail which could only tend to distract the attention of the reader who might be labouring to master its fundamental principles.

Assuming the student, then, to have grasped the idea that in travelling with any considerable velocity towards a source of light, we meet more waves of that light in a second, and so in effect increase their refrangibility-and that, on the other hand, in receding with sufficient rapidity from the luminiferous body, we diminish the number of vibrations or undulations which reach us, and so degrade their refrangibility-we are now prepared to follow the details of Mr. Huggins's observations and to appreciate their results.

Sirius is a star which, from its great brilliancy and the marked distinctness and intensity of the four lines in its spectrum, early attracted his attention, and to which he has devoted a large amount of consideration. Owing, however, to its proximity to the horizon, anything like measurement of its spectrum is confined to a period of about an hour on each side of the meridian; and, in fact, the extraordinary difficulty of making any measurement at all of lines which fluctuate with the undulations of the atmosphere, can only be appreciated by those who have themselves examined a star, having much south declination, with the spectroscope. From this point we had better let Mr. Huggins speak for himself.

"As it was obviously impossible," he says, "to determine with the required accuracy the coincidence of the line of Sirius when the much broader band of hydrogen at the ordinary pressure was compared with it, I employed a fixed before the object glass. In all these obser

vacuum tube

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RECENT OR SUPERFICIAL ACCUMULATIONS, Surface Soil.-Earth and decomposed organic rem Alluvium.-Gravel, &c., deposited at the mouth.

rivers.

Diluvium.-Drift, boulders and blocks.

TERTIARY.

sion, it may possibly be LIST OF ROCKS IN ORDER OF SUPERPOSITION expedient to supply. The first is the information that the millimetre mentioned above is 0.03937 of an English inch; the second consists of a diagram showing the slight degradation of refrangibility of line F in Sirius. With these, and a careful perusal of what has preceded them, we would fain hope that the student may have no difficulty in perfectly realizing the mode in which have been ascertained both the direction and velocity of the Flight of a Star.

Pleiocene (more recent).-Sand, pebbles, clay, & taining sea-shells of species approximating to the e Meiocene (less recent).-Limestones and clays co salt and fresh water shells.

taining marine shells, beds of limestone, with fesaka Eocene (beginning of recent).-Thick strata of cisand amphibious extinct animals and vegetables. SECONDARY.

Chalk, or Cretaceous.-Chalk with flints, chall de flints, chalky marl, green sand.

vations the slit used was as narrow as possible. ... The line from the spark appeared, in comparison, very narrow; not more than about onenifth of the width of the line of Sirius. When the battery circuit was completed, the line of hydrogen conld be distinctly seen upon the dark THE WORLD: ITS FORMATION AND Fullers' earth, inferior oolite, upper lias, mari

line of Sirius. The observation of the comparison of the lines was made many times; and I am certain that the narrow line of hydrogen, though it appeared projected on the dark line in Sirius, did not coincide with the middle of the line, but crossed it at a distance from the middle which may be represented by saying that the want of coincidence was apparently equal to about onethird or one-fourth of the interval separating the components of the double line D. I was unable to measure directly the distance between the centre of the line of hydrogen and that of the line in the spectrum of Sirius, but several very careful estimations, by means of the micrometer, give a value for that distance of 0.040 of the micrometer head. This value is probably not in error by so much as its eighth part." After giving an account of many carefully conducted experiments, to prove that it was really the line F of hydrogen which he was observing in Sirius, Mr. Huggins proceeds :

"From these observations it may, I think, be concluded that the substance in Sirius which produces the strong lines is really hydrogen, as was stated by Dr. Miller and myself in our former paper. Further, that the aggregate result of the

motions of the star and earth in space, at the

ANTIQUITY.

BY ARTHUR UNDERHILL. (Continued from page 337.)

CHAPTER III.

INCE the débris, waste, or dregs of each convulsion were deposited in regular strata over every part of the earth which might at that period be submerged or under water, and since each such deposition always partook of a nature different to any preceding or succeeding one, it follows that strata are always found in the order of time of their deposition; that is to say, that the older formations are always beneath the later

ones.

Oolitic, or Jurassic.-Thick strata of clay, yellowe and iron ore, clayey sandstone, Portland stone. I meridge clay, Oxford clay, Forrest marble, great

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(To be continued.)

COMETS AND METEORS.
BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S.,
Author of "Other Worlds than Ours," &c.

(Continued from page 313.)

Thus the carboniferous system was deposited before the oolitic system, and if you should search the whole world you would never find the coal above the oolite. To make it plainer, suppose several systems represented by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, to have been deposited in the same order-viz., first 1, then 2, then 3, and then 4, we should in such a case never find them in a reversed or inverted order, as 2, 1, 3, 4, or 1, 3, 4, 2, &c; although from local T had been noticed that many meteors seemed IT to enter our atmosphere with a velocity far disturbances of the crust we might frequently find exceeding that which would be due to bodies some of the intermediate strata absent; as travelling in nearly circular orbits around the time when the observations were made, was to 1, 3, 4, or 2, 4, or 3, 4, or, perhaps, 4 alone, or 1 sun. The observations on which this conclusion degrade the refrangibility of the line in Sirius by alone, resting on some igneous rock. The know- had been founded were, indeed, not wholly satis an amount corresponding to 0-040 of the micro-ledge of this fact is very useful in the arts, for if factory, because it was a matter of extreme diff meter screw. Now the value of the wave-lengths we know what formations are upon or near the culty to time the motions of the meteors athwar of 0-01 division of the micrometer at the position of surface, we can tell accurately that certain rocks the heavens. It was comparatively easy for tw I is 0-02725 millionth of a millimetre. The total will be wisent in that locality, and to save the observers, at stations far apart, to take observe degradation of refrangibility observed amounts expense of a useless search for them. For tions of the same meteor so accurately that its to 0.109 millionth of a millimetre. If the velocity instance, if we should discover (referring to our actual path through our atmosphere could be of light be taken at 185,000 miles per second, and former example) No. 3 at the surface, we should determined; but to ascertain exactly how man the wave-length of F at 486-5 millionths of a millimetre (Angström's is 486-52, Ditscheiner's we might find numbers 1 and 2. In consequence by no means so easy. The suddenness with whic never think of looking for No. 4 there, although seconds it occupied in traversing that path wa 486-49), the observed alteration in period of the of this fact, geologists have classified rocks in a shooting star appears, the short duration of i order of superposition, and the list appended to visibility, and the necessity of noting very this chapter exhibits this order. They are rately its apparent path among the stars, alle placed primarily in five classes, called respectively, to make the determination of the actual num primary, transition, secondary, tertiary, and of seconds occupied by the meteor in smo superficial formations. These classes are sub- athwart the heavens a matter of extreme divided into systems, and these again into strata. culty. Yet observations had been made The division into classes has been made, because indicated, as I have said, a velocity far g all the systems in each class bear a certain re- than that which would be found in the cas semblance to each other, both in conformation, meteors travelling in a nearly circular and fossils or organic remains. Thus the super- around the sun. ficial accumulations consist of surface soil, alud, would be: a body at the same mean distance gravel deposited at the mouths of rivers, and the sun as our earth, would travel with th diluvium or drift erratic blocks, and contains mean velocity, or at the rate of some 18 mi remains of present animals, including man.

line in Sirius will indicate a motion of recession existing between the earth and the star of 41-4

miles per second.

Of this motion a part is due to the earth's motion in space. As the earth moves round the sun in the plane of the ecliptic, it is changing the direction of its motion at every instant. There are two positions, separated by 180°, when the

effect of the earth's motion is a maximum namely, when it is moving in the direction of the visual ray, either towards or from the star. At two other positions in its orbit, at 90° from the former positions, the earth's motion is at right angles to the direction of the light from

We know what that reb

The a second. Such a body coming full tilt ag the star, and therefore has no influence on its tertiary class (or that immediately below the the earth, would traverse our atmosphere st refrangibility. . . . That portion of the earth's superficial) consists of marls, clays, crag (or half- rate of 36 miles per second. But, as a mat

travel

visual ray, and which alone has to be considered tains fossils of animals and plants of a bygone a rate considerably exceeding this-> in this investigation, may be obtained from the period. The secondary class is formed of large beds of when they were not directly encountering?

following formula:

latitude.

"Earth's motion towards star =v, cos A, sin (1-1). "Where v is the earth's velocity, I the earth's longitude, l' the star's longitude, and A the star's At the time when the estimate of the amount of alteration of period of the line of Sirius was made, the earth was moving from the star with the velocity of about twelve miles per second. There remains unaccounted-for a motion of recession from the earth amounting to 29.4 miles per second, which we appear to be entitled to attribute to Such, in the words of their great discoverer, is

Sirius."

as act

one

clay, chalk, shale, coal, limestone, sandstone, and earth.
ironstone, containing fossils of plants and saurians Now, if this had been accepted
(or big lizards). The transition class is composed proved, there would have been only
of strata of limestone, sandstone, and shales, nation of the phenomenon. We know so
having very few fossils, and those of an exceed what velocities can be generated by the
ingly low organization. The primary class is attractive influence under such and such ci
formed of vast beds of slate, quartz, gneiss, stances, that whenever we find a body
crystalline limestone or marble, and is wholly with a given velocity in any given part
destitute of fossils. As it may interest my readers solar system, we know forthwith what
to inspect for themselves some of the different range of its path, from what distances
systems and classes which are found in our own come, and to what distances it will pass
country, I may mention that in and around It may seem that in the present instance
London, and from thence as far as the Humber, problem must be complicated by the effects
and including all the eastern counties, the ter- earth's attraction; but in reality the earth ca

bodies. an account of the astounding results arrived at ford and Bedford, the chalk system occurs. In the earth were allowed an all but infinite p by the employment of a few glass prisms and a Shropshire, the old red sandstone; in Northamp- to attract a meteor from an all but infinite narrow slit. It seems to us to require no addition ton, the colitic; the Cambrian, anica schist, and tance, the meteor would finally reach the on our part to render the principles on which gneiss, in the mountainous counties; and the new with a velocity of barely six miles per second. those results depend apprehensible to every one red sandstone, and carboniferous (coal-bearing) will be conceived, therefore, how relatively who will take the trouble to read it carefully systems, in Staffordshire and Leicestershire.

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