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8

(take away brackets),,

4

(2 log. 3+1)

9 log. 33+ 16 log. 3-5 log. 3

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2

value; they are rather thick, and of pure silver?-
N.T.M.B.M.

[4306.]-SILVER COIN.-Will somo correspondent

-GILES.

ROM

kindly describe the silver coin figured above, and give Actual size. Preservation good. Again using brackets for all expressions in which log. 3 approximate value? occurs, we have [4307.]-HORIZONTAL v. VERTICAL ENGINES. Why are horizontal engines preferred to verticals ?-A YOUNG TYKE.

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FLETCHER.

16

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C. H. W. B. [4276.]-GUTTA-PERCHA.- Gutta-percha may be [4309.]-BARTON'S SELF-ACTING FEED-WATER dissolved by chloroform, and also, I believe, with bi- HEATER-Would S. Crompton say what kind of a float sulphide of carbon. The solution may be made any Barton applies to his heater (see p. 369) ?-J. H. thickness, from a clear fluid to a thick paste, and the gutta-percha resumes its original state after the evapo- practical chemist among your very numerous and able [4310.]-DESTRUCTIVE SOAP POWDERS.-Canany ration of the chloroform or other solvent.-THOS. Correspondents inform me whether a simple method exists of ascertaining whether any "soap powder" con[4282]-CONTINENTAL SCHOOLS.-I can recom-taining destructive acid has been applied to linen sent mend to "Anxiety" the college of Melle, near Ghent, to the wash? Paper collars have superseded linen, but and the commercial school of the Josephites at Gram- till paper shirts are adopted most of us have an interest mont, also near Ghent, as the best he will be able to in preventing processes which reduce in so few washings find. These two establishments are very highly this very necessary garment to the consistency of tissue esteemed, both in Belgium and in other countries. The paper?-SANS CHEMISE. Trinity College of Louvain is also a very good one. For prospectus and particulars, write to the director of St. be good enough to give us a little information about our [4811.]-EMIGRATION.-Would some one who knows George's College, Croydon, Surrey. East Indian possessions as a field for emigration. Is there not a good opening there for a few mechanics and an odd cotton clerk and railway clerk or so. An advertisement I saw lately offering £16, £18, £20 per month for spring makers and wheel tyrers leads me to ask this question.-AQUILLUS.

E. V. D. S. [4282.]-CONTINENTAL SCHOOLS.-I should recommend the Rev. J. G. Pfluderer's classical, mathematical, and commercial school for young gentlemen, in Kornthal, near Stuttgart, as one of the best and most economical schools on the continent. The institution is under the supervision of the Royal Council of Education of Wurtemberg, and comprises, besides the private apartments of the principal and his family, and the tutors' apartments, a dining hall, three large and airy dormitories, one large study, six school rooms, a large gymnastic hall, as well as a playground, 15 acres in extent, containing a large lake for beating in summer and skating in winter, a cricket ground, shrubberies and woods. The country round Kornthal is an intermixture of vineyards, fields, and woods, and is within an easy distance for excursions to the celebrated Black Forest, Solitude, and Hohenheim: is therefore situated in a healthy climate. The community of Kornthal forms a religious settlement, in some respects similar to those of the Moravians, and singularly free from all temptations to vice. A physician resides in the village. Should "Anxiety" require any further details, he may apply to A. TOLHAUSEN, 103, Dale-street, Hulme, Man

chester.

THOS. FLETCHER.

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT.

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an oven or kiln as used by glass painters, &c., the diatance of the fire from the grate to the bottom of the oven, and what supports are used to keep the oven in its place, and what is the best material for the oven, as I am about to replace my old one, which is of iron ?-KEL

[4824.]-FAN BLAST.-I should be obliged if some one would instruct me how to make a small fan blast to heat small pieces of iron about lin. thick. I should like to see a rough sketch of one, and a simple plan, so that I could make it myself. What size would the fan have to be?G. Cook.

[4325.]-PLANTING.-What is the proper time of year for slitting and planting house plants ?-M. N.

[4326.]-POLARISCOPE FOR LANTERN.-Will some one amongst your numerous readers kindly give me a description of the above for a lantern sin. condenser, as I want to add one to mine? I want to use the ordi nary front lenses, or microscope combined with it. A diagram would be useful?-E. H. J.

[4927.]-WANT OF PRESSURE.-Would any reader egg-end boilers, they having been in for fourteen years. help me out of my difficulty? I am in charge of tw I get the steam up to 9lb. pressure, when it will fall to about 2lb. I should like to know the cause. I believe it to be in the flues.-A STOKER.

[4928.]-MOUNTING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.-I steep in potass until transparent, then stick on with am at a loss to know how to mount some objects. I can manage flat surfaces, such as wings of insects, which 1 Canada balsam, finally putting on the thin glass cover. Should heat be applied to the glass to ensure a firmer adherence. If I want to mount an object which is any thickness-for instance, a cricket-I am at a loss, for if done as above, the top thin glass would be such a great distance from the slide. &c., of flowers. Another thing is the petals, Are they fit for mounting when first them? long to remain in, or is there a better way to prepare picked, or should they be put into potass? If so, how If "H. P." will kindly answer me these questions he will confer a great boon on others as well. C. R. H.

[4329.]-THE MICROSCOPE.-I am glad to see from offers to supply information on the microscope. Now your "Answers to Correspondents," that Mr. C. C. Smith I should like to ask him what kind of instrument he the various insects and animalcula to be found in a would advise me to purchase. I want one that will show the wings of the neuroptera, &c.-in short an instrument pond, the starch-cells of a potato, or the markings in that will serve to while away a leisure hour, without being extraordinarily perfect, and consequently expensive.-SABBAS.

me how to prepare a wall for fresco painting ?-FABER.
[4230.]-WALL DECORATION.-Can any one tell

of stone to cut for trinkets. Can any brother reader
[4331.]-STONE FOR TRINKETS.-I have a quantity
inform me which is the best way to cut it ?-F. H.

[4314.)-RULE WANTED.-Will some brother reader
give a rule for finding the contents of a weight of a
known length and breadth? For instance, I want a
weight 601b., must be 9in. long, 144in. broad. What thick-
figures will suit best, as I do not understand algebra.-SABLE.
ness will it be in the wood pattern? An answer in plain
GOOD WORDS.

[4315.]-CLEVELAND IRONSTONE.-What is the
cost of the Cleveland ironstone f. o. b. in the Tyne, and
-R. W. M.

is it shipped to Newcastle in the raw or calcined state?

know the proportions of Antimonium and Silicium to [4332.]-BLACK GLASS OF ANTIMONY.-1 do not flux for producing the glass of antimony (Black).

[4333.-LANCASHIRE BLACK.-Will any reader say is prepared, and used as on tools?-ANXIOUS. what is the composition of "Lancashire black," how it

[4334.]-ECLIPSE OF THE MOON.-Would any of your readers tell me why, when the moon was "eclipsed" on the night of the 12th, she was distinctly seen of a dark copper colour? I expected the moon's disc to dis appear altogether. Is it the refractive qualities of our atmosphere which cause it ?-LUNAR.

[4335.]-IRISH MOSS.-Will any reader inform me what Irish Carrigaune moss is used for, and where would be the best place that I can find a market for the same?

[4285.]-GAS MUFFLE FURNACE.-I fear this is not practicable without an enormous consumption of gas, even for a very small muffle, and also that a strong blast will be necessary. I use a blast gas furnace for small [4316.] - A DIFFICULT QUESTION. - In the crucible work, and I find in the most perfect form of honours paper of the subject "Applied Mechanics," in furnace I can get it requires a consumption of 18ft. or the science examination just past, the following question 20ft. per hour, and a bellows blast of 6in. water pressure, is given. It is so ambiguous, that I spent one of the to heat a 2 in. x 2in. crucible white hot. The burner I three precious hours of the examination in endeavouruse is similar to Griffin's blast gas burner. I should ing to comprehend it, and for the life of me I could not also fear the continued breaking of the muffles, from determine whether there were two or three enclosing the great difficulty in applying the heat gradually.-rings, so I gave it up. Since then, I showed it to a bachelor of science and he finds it as difficult as I did,AN IRISHMAN. and for the same reason. I propose to submit it to my fellow-readers, in the hope that some one of them will kindly explain it. At the same time I think a protest ought to be made against the practice adopted by some of the examiners of putting questions which are of the nature of a puzzle. Such a practice is likely to bring OUR readers most probably will not be surprised to hear the papers into contempt, which is most undesirable. that the British and Foreign Mechanic, whose birth was The question is as follows:-6. "Built-up guns are made heralded with such a flourish of trumpets, is about to be of concentric rings, the outer hoops, or rings, being incorporated with the ENGLISH MECHANIC. A few days tension. Supposing the external diameter of the inner shrunk or forced upon inner tubes with a regulated since, the proprietor of the B. and F. M., staggering tube to be 12in. and that the substance of its covering under a load of responsibility, incurred, as he affirms, hoop is to have given to it an initial grip of 4 tons per by editorial mismanagement, solicited us to buy the square inch of its sectional area; the exterior diameter copyright of his journal. After some negotiation the third hoop, having an initial grip of 8 tons per square of this second hoop is 18in. and is to be covered with a purchase was effected, and the result is that the B. and inch of its sectional area; will you work out in arithmeF. M., like other publications of late, will be merged in tie the difference of dimensions which will afford the the ENGLISH MECHANIC. above conditions ?"-STUDENT.

NOTES AND QUERIES.

[4304.1-NAPKIN RINGS.-I am much obliged to "Saul Rymea" for his answer to the former of these queries. By "marking" boxwood rings, I mean stamping them in some way on the outside so that each person may know his own ring from time to time.-W. F. [4305.]-SILVER COINS.-Can any correspondent

brother inform me what the two following coins are of which I enclose full-size sketches, and if they are of any

[4317.] SIZING.-I mix 20 packs of flour at once for
sizing, and when fomented it is very yellow, can any of
your correspondents inform me how I can bleach
the same, or how I can make it white ?-JOHN BURY.

[4318.]-COMET.-Will "F.R.A.S." kindly give the
situation of the "comet" which he says is in "Serpens,"
so that it may be found without an equatorial?-G. C.
[4319.]-SPECULUM POLISHING.-Will Mr. Purkiss
be kind enough to describe his rule and method of find
ing the exact size of the small plane or flat for any
aperture, and whether his polisher goes as regular at
the end of the polishing, or whether it does not go in
"fits"? How long does he take to polish the surface
"till no trace of grain is left"? Will not rosin answer
to harden the pitch with ?-G. C.

[4320.]-BREAM FISHING.-Will any of your readers
kindly inform me what will entice bream to the hook ?-
POMPEY.

[4321.]-WATERPROOF.-Will some reader inform me how to soften a waterproof coat? it has got quite hard.-J. C.

[4322.]-SEWING MACHINES.-Any one versed in the above would oblige by solving this difficulty. The material seems dragged into the teeth of feeder, and a number of threads are wound around the point of hook. Without the threads the feeder acts very well. The machine is a Wheeler & Wilson's.-H. W.

[4323.]-GLASS BURNING.-Thanks to our obliging their information on glass painting, &c. Will either friends Mr. D. F. Ashton, and Mr. Joseph Leicester, for oblige me with all particulars of flues, &c., to construct

gave me a small piece, coming from Australia; could
[4336.]-TONGA BEAN WOOD.-A friend of mine
"Bernardin," or another correspondent give me some
particulars about that wood, he will oblige-T. B. W.
longitudinal holes are made in Paris.
[4337.]-HOLLOW CANDLES.-Candles with three
How are they
candles?-JOHN X.
made, and what advantages do they possess over other

to erect a draught furnace for smelting lead ore? I have
LEAD ORE.-Could any of your readers inform me how
[4838.] DRAUGHT FURNACE FOR SMELTING
a relative writing to me on the subject who is living in
Hamilton White Pine, Nevada, U.S.
plenty of charcoal and wood to heat it with, but the only
He can procare
he can get in blocks.-THOS. PEARSON.
material at hand to build it with would be stone, which

[4339.]-LA CROSSE.-Can any brother reader inform me of a hand-book of the above game, which is said to be more exciting than cricket, both for spectators asi players? I have for a long time wanted a book of the Perhaps some readers, if allowed, would give a desty above description, but could never come across tion in our MECHANIC.-VELOCIPEDIST.

[4340.]-LAMBORNE'S VELOCIPEDE. - Will Mr. Lamborne kindly give a description, size, &c., of his fourhours? It is the opinion of many that the bicycle will die out, as far as travelling goes, and the four-wheeler take wheeled velocipede on which he went 52 miles in 8 its place.-VELOCIPEDIST.

stroke.

[4341.]-KILMARNOCK OR BACK-WHEEL BICYCLE.-Will any reader who has ridden the common bicycle, likewise either of the above, state which is easiest to propel. Have any great distances been ridden on them? It seems to be the proper motion for the legs. What is the length of the cranks of the "Kilmarnock," which appeared in the MECHANIC, Nos. 216 and 2207 Please give a description of the stampings or pedals for at the commencement, and likewise the finish of the the feet, and their distance from the centre of the saddle Will this bicycle ascend hills as well as the wish to have this query answered.-VELOCIPEDIST. common bicycle? I am not the only one who would [4342.]-READINGS FROM THE GLOBES.-St. would feel much obliged for the title of the best recent "Treatise on the Use of Globes." is said: "In England, at the present time, the north In Tate's Astronomy (Gleig's School Series), page 87, it the north." Is this correct? The date of publication is pole of the needle points about 24° to the westward of 1868.

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and most

3924

[4343.]-WINDMILL FOR WORKING LATHE.-In 3317 your MECHANIC of June 14, 1867, your correspondent 3918 Liver" gives a drawing of windmill for working lathe. 3919 As I have the drawings, will "Liver" kindly give the dimensions of the mill as under, without trouble of sending another drawing. 1.-The thickness of shaft. 2.-Length of wands from centre of shaft. 3.-Size of slips of board for the wands. 4.-Size of wand frame in which the slips of board are to be fixed. 5.-Size of wood for wand frame. 6-Diameter of driving wheel, and how to be fixed on the shaft for driving the lathe.-SUBSCRIBER. (4344.]-WEIGHTS OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS.Would Mr. "G. E. Davis," "Sigma," or any of your chemical subscribers kindly inform me how to calculate the weight of soda, hydrate of soda, and carbonate of soda in solution at different specific gravities. For instance, suppose I have a solution of soda ash, 10 tons at 50 Twaddel (or any other degree), how can I ascertain the weight of pure soda, hydrate of soda, or carbonate of soda (crystal), what I ought to obtain from it; also what weight, supposing the hydrate to be only 60 per cent., and the crystal soda to contain 10 equivalents of water. An answer with calculations worked out will oblige.-ALKALI. 3969 3975 [4345.]-CRACKED BOILER PLATES.-Wanted a 3976 composition that will stand the fire between a cast-iron plate and a cast-iron boiler that is cracked, the plate being bolted on. Borings and red lead have been tried, but they are not permanent.-T. L.

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Oak, Walnut, and Mahogany Stains, 262. Organs, 263.

3925

Position of Magnetic Pole, 262.

3926

Forcing Water, 262.

3928

3333

3934

Re-manufacturing India-rubber, 262. Hypophosphite of Iron and Quinine, 262. Organ Accordion Stand, 262.

3935

Dissolving Sheep's Horns, 262.

3936

Fast Colour for Sheepskins, 262.

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White Lead, 262.

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3965

3968

Kiln, 263.

Copper Boilers, 263.

Value of Coin, 287.

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[4346.]-CONCERTINA.-Can any of my fellow readers give me assistance in the following:-I am trying to make an English concertina (dimensions of bellows, 9in. by 6in., with six double ribs), and I wish to 3994 know of what compass it would be best made? Can 3997 the reeds be purchased ready finished? or would it be 3998 better to make them myself? If so, of what scale, and of what metal ?-JAMES ROBSON RENDELL. [4347.]-TUNING BY EQUAL TEMPERAMENT.- 4005 Will any practical musical reader explain concisely, but explicitly, the equal temperament method of tuning in your journal, as applied to pianoforte or organ?A WOULD-BE TUNER. [4348.]-FROBLEM.-Will "C. H. W. B." or "Bernardin" be good enough to solve the following without trigonometry, using Euclid only (Book I.) ?-Please draw a figure (a), two forces of 100 pounds each, act upon a point at an angle of 150°. Find resultant. (Ans. 51-76381b.) (b). Forces of 60 and 160lb. respectively act upon a point, at an angle of 120°. Find resultant. (Ans. 140lb.)-AMICUS.

=

[4349.]-HEATING HOUSE WITH HOT AIR.-Will any one who has tried the American system of heating houses with hot-air from cockle, &c., describe how the flues are arranged, as also the cockle or hot air stoves; what time it takes to heat an ordinary eightroomed house; what effect this hot air has on the general health of the inhabitants-with any other remarks applicable.-SCOT.

[4350.]-BAROMETER,ETC.-I have a desire to possess a barometer, &c., at a moderate cost, in order that I may be able to make observations, and have seen your descriptions of the Polytechnic barometer, and Solomon's new compound set (pages 8 and 128). Which would answer my purpose best? or would an aneroid barometer be better than either of the others? Is it of any consequence where a barometer is placed, say in a hot room or cool passage of a house ?-K.

[4351.]-CASE FOR FERNS AND MOSS, described by "A Dentist," on page 259.-What depth should the soil box be made? Should any arrangement be made for draining the moisture away? Would not the box be improved if lined with lead, to prevent the wood box from rotting ?-K.

[4351.]-CONIC SECTIONS.-Will "F.R.A.S." or Mr. Proctor, kindly decide whether in conic sections the "vertical plane" of the "parabola" must be exactly parallel to the slant side of the cone; or in other words, whether in a right cone the plane that cuts the cone so as to form a parabola, must run parallel to the one slant side of the cone. If so, must not the conic section that is not parallel to the slant side, and approaches it, be an ellipse, and the section that increases its distance from the slant side, be a hyperbola? Personally I am pretty certain as to which s correct, but should be obliged by

an answer?-A URSE MINORIS.

[4852.]-WEAVING.-Will some kind flax, woollen, or cotton spinner inform me if they have any scientific method of knowing what number of, or lease of samples of yarn, when they are very small and without numer, grey and bleached? Also, I have small samples of cloth, linen, and cotton, grey, boiled, and bleached white, and woollens only woven and finished. If any manufacturer could tell me a correct method of ascertaining what number of yarns for warp and number for weft after the various processes named above, I should be obliged?-A WEAVER.

[4353.] - ROAD MEASURING. Can any fellow reader inform me if there is extant any machine used for measuring roads, &c., besides the pedometer?J. T. S.

UNNOTICED QUERIES.

IN future, if any query remain unanswered for four weeks, we shall insert the number and subject of the query in this list, where it will remain for two weeks, if not previously replied to. We trust our readers will

Organ Movement to Harmonium, 287. Atmospheric Influence on Electric Clocks, 237. Muslin Dress, 287.

leech of Northern Europe. Measures were taken some time ago by a Melbourne firm for the conservation of the Murray leeches, and their contracts with the fishermen in the Murray district for the past season exceeded half a million. But the intercolonial demand is almost equal to the supply. The leeches sent to England were packed in boxes of soft clay, made to resemble as much as possible the muddy bottom of the river which is their ordinary resort. It is said that the prime cost of leeches sold in Europe must exceed two millions sterling per

annum.

ARTIFICIAL ICE.-There comes from Germany a promise of relief from the extortionate demands of the ice companies. Mr. Franz Windhausen, of Brunswick, has invented a new machine for freezing water without the aid of chemicals. The process takes place in a cylinder," where the air is first powerfully condensed, then cooled by the admission of water, and finally expanded till its pressure is about equal to that of the atmosphere." By this means, it is asserted, the very astonishing result is obtained of lowering the temperature of the air to 50 Celsius (4° Fahrenheit), so that when conducted in moderate quantities into a space through which water flows, "the water is almost immediately turned into ice, of which enormous blocks may be thus obtained if desired." The invention will also, it is said, be applicable to the cooling of large apartment, such as theatres, hospitals, and churches.

UNITING PARCHMENT TO PAPER, WOOD, ETC. -It is not an easy thing to join the stiff, smooth surfaces of parchment paper on to other paper, or on to wood, pasteboard, &c. The paste does not seem to hold, and on this account this paper has not been so generally used in bookbinding and for similar purposes. The difficulty can be overcome in a very simple way. The surface of the parchment must first be moistened with alcohol or brandy and then pressed while still moist upon the glue or paste. When two pieces of parchment are to be joined both must be moistened in this way. It is said that the paper will sooner tear than separate where it has been thus fastened together. Another way is to

Pricking Barrels of Barrel Organs. To" Adept," 287. put a thin piece of paper between the surfaces of parch To" N. S. Heineken," 287.

inent and apply the paste. This forms a firm joint, and
can with difficulty be separated. Glue and flour paste

Arts Examination, Royal College of Surgeons, 287. are best adapted for uniting surfaces of parchment. Gum
Army Commissions, 287.
arabic does not answer.
Woulffe's Bottle, 287.

Tuning Bellows for Harmonium. To "Eleve," 287. Organ Stops. To "Harmonious Blacksmith" and Adept," 287.

USEFUL AND SCIENTIFIC NOTES.

THE ENGLISH MECHANIC'S SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, MANCHESTER.-SIR,-I beg to inform you that this society met, as already announced, on the 6th inst. The chair was taken by the President (Mr. J. M'Ewen), and the business of the evening commenced with a paper on "Light," by Mr. Baguley. The speaker, in a short but well-worked essay, explained the Huyghenian and Newtonian theories of light, as well as the analysation, dispersion, and recomposition of rays. discussion on the subject read followed, in which many of the members present took an active part. Amongst the objects shown to the society was a splendid microscope and a newly-invented eyeleting machine. Persons not yet members may become such by applying to the Secretary, 103, Dale-street, Hulme.

Α

VICTORIA LEGAL FRIENDLY SOCIETY.-The

annual meeting of the members of the Liverpool Victoria Legal Friendly Society, for the purpose of passing the accounts and other annual business, was held at Liverpool recently, Mr. Timothy Crowley, president, in the chair. The financial statement showed that there had been collected from the 28th May, 1869, to 27th May last, £13,852 195. 5d., and there had been paid on 4181 insurance claims and grants during the same period, £18,804 17s. 2d.; on collectors' commission, £10,9620s. 4d.; managers, agents, and collectors' salaries, £3,258 13s. 6d.; officers, clerks' and auditors' salaries, £1,034; committee and collectors' fees for transferring names of members, £537 83. 24d; officers and others visiting country dis tricts, and agency superintendents' salary and expenses, £446 4s. 10 d. The sum of £7,421 58. 0fd. had been saved during the year, and the total worth of the society on the 27th of May last was £26,945 16s. 8d.

GRAPE-SUGAR MANUFACTURE.-The production of grape-sugar, or glucose, appears to be extending with considerable rapidity in America. Factories for the purpose have been established in New Orleans, Buffalo, and Brooklyn. When grain or potatoes, yielding starch as the material for the manufacture, are cheap, and sugar is high-priced, the business will prove profitable; but a reversed condition of things, very likely to occur, will make the results quite different; and it is doubtful if the manufacture can be made a permanent industry beet-root and other saccharine plants as soon as our in view of the unlimited facilities for making sugar from producers have acquired that practical knowledge of processes which has enabled European sugar-makers to build up a production of the staple as vast as it is permanent.

WASTE GAS IN BLAST FURNACES.-Dr. Perey writes to the Times as under:-"It is reported that four men have been killed at ironworks in North Staffordshire by what is termed 'waste gas from the blast furnaces.' Tue poisonous ingredient of that gas is carbonic oxide, and the inhalation of it in very small quantity, whether pure or mixed with common air, rapidly destroys life. I have collected and published several cases of fatal poisoning from that cause at ironworks, foreign as well as British. A few years ago the engineer of the Dowlais Ironworks was suffocated in his office by the escape of this gas from an adjoining culvert. It is important that the managers of such works nature, and take every precaution to prevent their be acquainted with highly poisonous workmen from being exposed to its influence. As the use of the waste gas from our blast furnaces for heating steam boilers, mine kilus, &c., is extending daily, it is to be feared that deaths from its inhalation may become more frequent than hitherto, unless those who deal with it are fully instructed concerning its action on man. With the hope of communicating such instructions as widely and as quickly as possible, I beg to submit this letter for your consideration."

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RUSTING OF IRON.-Dr. Calvert communicated to the rusting of iron. Rust is mainly sesquioxide of iron, the Chemical Society some very useful information on and it has always been supposed that the active agents in producing it are moisture and oxygen. however, froin Dr. Calvert's experiments, that carbonic siderable amount of oxidation. In dry oxygen iron does acid must be associated with these to produce any connot rust at all, in moist oxygen but little and seldom, but in a mixture of moist carbonic acid and oxygen iron and steel rust very rapidly. In like manner a piece of bright iron placed in water saturated with oxygen rusts very little, but if carbon is present as well oxidation

goes on so fast that a dark precipitate is produced in a in a solution of caustic or carbonated alkali does not very short time. Curiously enough, bright iron placed rust at all. These facts show that the points to be attended to in the preservation of iron from rust are the exclusion of carbonic acid and moisture, two indications which may be very easily fulfilled.

A HINT TO IRON SHIPBUILDERS.-In a paper read before the Polytechnic Club of the American Institute, by Mr. Norman Weard, entitled, "The Ship of the Future: Shall it be Wood or Iron," after enumerating all the bad qualities of iron ships, and all the good ones of wooden ones, he says:-"If it were the fact that the ship of the future is to be of iron, there would be left us but one course to pursue, in order to regain the great Atlantic, namely, war-a war with England. We ocean ship-building and steam-carrying trade of the can never hope to excel or even equal Eugland in builling large and swift ocean mail steamers of iron. I am not here, however, as the advocate of a war with England; for I do not believe that the ship of the future is to be made of iron. I prefer to take the weathergauge of the English ship-builders, by assisting to discover how to make a better ship of the material we have in like excess to the English supply of iron-or take the wind out of their sails, as our yachtsmen did the other day. And this I propose to do by enquiring into the bad qualities of the ships they produce, and by investiship than they can make without coming to us, or applying to some foreign country for the material."

look over the list, and send what information they can spoonfuls daily. Forty-three thousand of these trees gation in advance to find out how to produce a better

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INDIA-RUBBER INEXHAUSTIBLE.-The belt of land around the globe, 500 miles north and 500 miles south of the equator, abounds in trees producing the gum of india-rubber. They can be sapped, it is stated, for twenty successive seasons without injury; and the trees stand so close that one man can gather the sap of eighty in a day, each tree yielding, on an average, three tablehave been counted in a tract of country 30 miles long by 8 wide. There are in America and Europe more than 150 manufactories of india-rubber articles, employing 10,000,000 pounds of the gum per year, and the business some 500 operatives each, and consuming more than is considered to be still in its infancy. But to whatever extent it may increase, there will still be plenty of rubber to supply the demand.

AUSTRALIAN LEECHES.-The Melbourne Argus states that a large consignment of leeches went to England in April by the steamship Somersetshire. It appears that some parts of Australia abound with leeches, and those which frequent the Murray River have a good repute for biting freely and leaving no inflammatorywound or mark behind; they are said to rival the speckled

THE OBSERVING ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

istence on July 1st. The recent election of officers for This society entered upon the second year of its exthe ensuing year has resulted in the re-election of the former President, treasurer, and secretary and committee. The Rev. R. E. Hoppell, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S., is the president; Mr. William F. Denning, the treasurer and secretary, and the following are members of the committee:-Messrs. T. P. Barkas, F.G.S., James Cook, A. W. Blacklock, M.B., H. Michell Whitley, and Albert P. Holden. The society numbers 43 members, and was formed for the purpose of aiding the spread of practical astronomy.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS.

All communications should be addressed to the EDITOR of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, 31, Tavistockstreet, Covent Garden, W.C.

The following are the initials, &c., of letters to hand up to Tuesday morning, July 19, and unacknowledged elsewhere:

R. Burgess, Dr. Allnatt, Ashcroft & Co., Walter, J. C., junr., W. H. C., J. H. & Co., E. V. S., D. J. W., Bernardin, Saml. Wishart, C. C. Clifford, J. P. S., H. W. Henfrey, Jesse Lowe (with photo. of lathe work), J. M., Evan Hughes, Stucco Plasterer, E. M. T. Tydeman, C. Draper, J. R. D., L., Mark Steward, Music, D. T. Batty, Mac. D., S. Rogers, W. B. Stanley, Patience and Perseverance, W. B. Harvey, Sunbeam, Banting, G. G. Brassey, Jet, Harry G. Newton, Agent, W. M. M., Telescope, J. Miller, Amateur, Jobber, A. J. Adams, Country Brewer, W. Griffiths. Sheffield Flood, Exact Share, Geo. Higgs, Leather, K. T. Z., A Fireman, H. W. C., Somerset Amateur, S. Hewitt, W., T. Gatesby, W. T., R. A. B., Ignorant Irishman, Rev. E. Kernan, Peregrine Pickle, F. G., Edinburgh, H. M., Flautist, G. G. André, G. Firth, G. K., H. H, Halley, W. Jones, Ventas, E. D. Cope, Electra, Cuthbert, Virgil, A Mechanic, Would-be Entomologist, N. T., F. X. Wright, Good Words, Neino, S. W., A. J. Jarman.

A. R. Your letter is too much a puff of the "Doctor Bedfordian system of astronomy." If Dr. Bedford is determined to associate his name with an historical astronomical system, he must begin de novo, take a wider survey of facts, and be less disposed to jump at conclusions. Besides, it would be more in harmony with the modesty and geniality that accompany man's greatness, for him to let others associate his name with a "system" and not do so himself. The insinuation that we are "staff-bound" is simply absurd. Neither Mr. Proctor nor any one else is in the slightest degree" a dictator in our columns," and we are sure that Mr. Proctor would be amongst the first to repudiate such a claim. Our space belongs to those who can till it most worthily.

H. G. T.-Described several times.

R. E. W.-We cannot make engravings from sealing wax impressions of coins.

W. H. SAYER.-See answer to R. E. W.

E. H. JONES.-There is some truth in your remarks, and we have sometimes considered the advisability of taking the step you suggest.

J. EDGILL.-See recent back numbers for discussion as to whether the use of the velocipede is injurious to health.

A WORKING SMITH.-See last volume for instructions

to make electric bells.

IGNORANT.-Longmans, Paternoster-row.
MILLER. We cannot. An advertisement in the Sixpenny
Sale Column would probably gain for you the infor-

mnation.

AQUILLUS.-Send us the information, but make it as brief as possible.

STUDENT.-Yes; order through any bookseller.
CYMRO. "Gwilt's Encyclopædia," published by Long-

mans.

C. L.-Your views are correct. It is surprising how any sensible person can think differently.

AMATEUR PHILOSOPHER.-We ought not to be called on to make engravings for purely theoretical enquirers. NIAGARA. Your query involves perpetual motion-or an impossibility.

J. HARRIS.-Your question about the best watchmakers is a commercial one. We have before said that we desire to keep the educational and commercial departments of the paper distinct.

J. B. S., Macclesfield.-Fenchurch-street, London. T. M.-We cannot encourage private correspondence, therefore your letter is not forwarded. You can now only recover your strength by temperate habits, early rising, cold water ablutions, and a virtuous life. CHARLES RUSSELL, Birkenhead.-Thanks for the list of millers.

The Sixpenny Sale Column is the only place in which can appear queries sent by J. W., Miller, C. H. B. (first part), Artemus Ward, Purpura, Busy Bee, Nemo, X. O.

A SUFFERER.-Consult a medical man; avoid quacks. SOMERSET AMATEUR.-The numbers announced in print at the foot of the article are in print, and can be had direct on receipt of stamps.

H. H. C.-Yes, with a drawing, if possible.

W. T. P. L.-We do publish from time to time accounts of boiler explosions.

E. A. P. (Rochester)-The ENGLISH MECHANIC can only be forwarded by book-post to the Australian colonies. H. P.-You will notice that the termination of your communication has been left over. It will appear with your next.

E. L.-Yes, the war, if it continues, will to some extent influence the timber trade. It is already doing so at Grimsby, where freights have advanced 10s. per ton, and timber has consequently risen in price. Many ships of the timber fleet now due are German ships, and have been ordered to run into Bremen. B. G.--You may be sure all the good contributors will be welcome. Some of the others will undoubtedly be SIMON LESLIE.-The status of Building Societies is a sent to the right-about. most important question. We fear, however, the Government will do nothing in the matter this year, notwithstanding the favourable reception given on Monday by the Home Secretary to the deputation you A READER OF BOTH.-Yes; a visible alteration in the tone of the once hostile and now to be amalgamated journal is noticeable in the last few numbers. A friend observed to us that, like the swan, its dying utterances were the best.

refer to.

H. A. L.-All the usual Continental trips will be interrupted, so such information would be useless for the present.

R. HITCHMAN.-Your plan is not novel, nor do we think its adoption would be desirable. What is the "nation" to do with the invention when it has bought it. The majority of inventions are only to be profitably worked by private enterprise.

BERNARDIN. It was a mistake, and the others have been forwarded. Το ensure insertion communications should reach us by Saturday. Anything of importance, however, would be in time on Monday. JAS. HARRISON.-Your letter is not inserted, because of the contemptuous way you speak of another correspondent.

THE INVENTOR.

IN obedience to the suggestions of a number of readers, we have decided on appropriating a portion of our space to a condensed list of Patents as nearly as possible up to the date of our issue.

APPLICATIONS FOR LETTERS PATENT DURING THE WEEK ENDING JULY 11, 1879.

1895. T. Carr, Bristol, arrangements for cleaning and reducing wheat, maize, beans, peas, another seeds into dour or semolina. 1806 E. Holden, Bralford, apparatus employed in preparing and combing wool and othor fibres.

1897 J. Heaton, Eastwood, Improvements in obtaining motive power.

1994 E. L. Macdonell, Titchfield-street, improved means of facilitating and effecting the traction of wheel carriages drawn by horse power.

1899 R. A. Novare, King's-square, Goswell-road, improvements in the Morse telegraph printing apparatus.

evaporating and boiling or concentrating liquids, and in apparatus 1900 J. H. Johnson, 47, Lincoln's Inn-fields, improvements in employed therein.

A communication.

101 T. Hydes an i W. Wigfull, Suefield, improved methods of connecting together the vertical and horizontal bars of iron fencing.

1902 J. W. Hoffman, and F. A. Harrison, Birmingh am, improvements in the manufacture of certain ornamental and useful articles, such as buttons, knous for doors and drawers, &c. 1903 E. T. Hughes, 129, Chancery-lane, improvements in the manufacture of caustic soda. A communication.

1904 W. R. Lake, Southampton-buildings, improvements in mechanical appliances and furnaces. A communication. 1905 G. Burn y and C. Ingall, Millwall, improvements in storing petroleum and other inflammable or explosive liquids. 1906 J. Young, Glasgow, improvements in lamps.

1907 J. Robertson, Nitshill, Renfrewshire, improvements in apparatus to be used in making tubes.

1908 A. Prince, improvements in soldiers' litters. A communication.

1909 J. Bourne, 66, Mark-lane, London, improvements in the means and apparatus employed in cutting various substances. 1910 L. Le Chevalier Cottam, Winsley-street, improvements in the construction of spiral staircases.

TRADE AND COMMERCE.-We have received letters during the past week from "Sigma," "Herbert," "F. W. M." "Political Economist," and a "Disciple of J. S. Mill.” J. WINTER. In answer to your first question-y es, as you may see announced elsewhere. To your second question-no. Mr. Edward Henri Todé did not originate the ENGLISH MECHANIC. He was no more the creator of this publication than an empty coal barge in the Thames creates the tide on which it rides. The ENGLISH MECHANIC owes its popularity and circulation, as "Sigma " long since said, to its multitudi-provements in machinery for spinning and twisting fibrous subnous correspondents, who rejoice in mutually giving and receiving useful and interesting information. NORTHERN MECHANIC.-Carefully read Mr. Sprague's articles. They will give you much of the information you ask for.

A MODEL CORRESPONDent. "Sable," who, we believe, is a clergyman, and whose article on the Flute is inserted, says, I wish only to be admitted amongst the least of those whom you are pleased to call your friends, although I give place to none as your sincere wellwisher. If you print this article, I shall be gratified, but if you consign it to the abysmal waste basket and the tender mercies of the redoubtable Betty,' I shall not be disappointed in any degree."

C. RICHARDSON.-The numbers can be had for 3s. 2d., exclusive of postage.

P. T. B.-We think no harm could result from the use of the Turkish bath, but in a case of disease medical advice should be taken.

X. O.-Write to the publisher of the Journal of Horticulture, 176, Fleet-street.

K. T. Z.-Write to J. R. Willis, 29, Minories.
H. HOLDERNESS.-If you refer again to our reply in
No. 274, you will see we told you it was impossible for
you to gain the information without fuller particulars.

1911 F. R. Ensor, improvements in the manufacture of lace in twist lace machines.

1912 H. M. Ward, Loop Bridge Mills, Ballyinaconaghy, imstances.

1913 J. Ascough, Handsworth, improvements in Venetian blinds and shutters.

1914 W. R. Lake, Southampton-buildings, London, improvements in furnaces chiefly designed for heating metals and ores. A communication.

1915 F. Tommasi, Paris, an improved submarine hydro-electric telegraph cable.

1916 F. J. Liger, 23, Rue de Beaune, Paris, improvements in the building of ironwork walls.

1917 E. L. C. d'Ivernois, Paris, an improvement in the means for producing electric light.

1918 A. M. Clark, 53, Chancery-lane, improvements in smoothing irens. A communication.

1919 C. Falck, Fairfoot-road, Bow, an improved portable refri gerator.

1920 J. J. M'Grath, Cable street, St. George's-in-the-East, improvements in the construction of wheels.

1921 I. Whitesmith, Glasgow, improvements in looms for weaving.

1922 B. Dobson, T. Thornley, and J.Settle, Bolton improvements in apparatus for cleaning the flated and top rollers of machines used in preparing and spinning cotton.

1923 W. R. Lake an improved device for fastening tickets upon woven goods and other articles. A communication." 1924 T. Read, Malton, improvements in the construction of reaping machines.

1925 D. Lord, Great Horton, improvements in shedding warps in the process of weaving.

1926 C. Holste, 14, Southampton-street, Covent-garden, improvements in the manufacture of pots or crucibles used n glass furnaces. A communication.

1927 H. H. Murdoch, 7. Staple-inn, improvements in embina tion locks and padlocks, and keys for the watce. A comunicati 1929 C. de Berguc, 10, Strand, improvements in machinery fur punching metal.

1929 H. J. Crockett, 6, Canonbury-grove, Islington, improve ments in window sash and casement fasteners.

1930 D. Gordon, Ayr, improvements in machinery or apparsta for churning.

1931 J. Hensman, Ampthill, and W. Armstrong. Haynes, m provements in agricultural drills.

1932 R.Edwards, Bowimprovements in interlacing and interlaring of papers with thread, and their application to the manufactur of envelopes.

15 G. G. Bussey, Rye-lane, Peckham, an improved apparates to be used as a substitute for bird trap shooting.

1934 F. W. Roberts, Blaby, an improved method or applicats a for preserving the fronts or edges of stays and corsets, 1935 J. Buchanan, and S. Vickress, Liverpool, improvemente the manufacture and reburning of animal charcoal."

1946 P. Chaplin, Harlow, improvements in wheels to be used da railways. A communication.

1937 R. Hutchison, Glasgow, improvements in bleaching improving vegetable and animal oils and fats.

13s J. Kershaw, Bolton, improvements in looms for weaving 1939 W. R. Harris, Manchester, improvements in the mode connecting wheels and other articles to their shafts.

1940 Count Sparre, 13, Boulevart St. Martin, Paris, impres ments in breech-loading fire-arms.

1941 A. Cochrane, 9, Wilton-place, St. John's Wood, impro ments in giving motion to ships and other floating bodies. 1942 W. G. Jackson, Dockhead, improvements in the manufac ture of cordials.

1943 W. R. Lake, improvements in buckles for fastening urPH,

belts, and other like articles. A communication.

1944 W. R. Lake, improved locking and releasing hooks, 4 communication.

1945 T. T. Chellingworth, 8, Great Queen-street, Westme an improved hot-air engine.

1946 H. E. Pavy, Rue du Bac, Paris, improvements in bins and granaries or holders for corn and grain. A communication. 1:47 T. Bruce, Monkton, Ayrshire, improvements in pumping forcing apparatus for hydraulic presses.

1948 E. Leahy, Cardington street, Euston-square, improve ments in portable or movable railways. 1949 P. Spence, Newton Heath, Manchester, improvements 12 the treatment of sewage.

wrappers.

1950 D. Nicoll, Fell street, London, an improved waterpr fabric applicable for rugs, carpets, tents, and outer coverings t skates. 1951 Sir C. H. Pennell, Woodlands, Weybridge, improvements is 1952 W. Marriott, Huddersfield, improvements in the manufac ture of iron salts or compounds.

1955 J. P. Barford, Banbury, improvements in carriage jacks, 1954 M. H. Wiley, Massachusetts, certain new and useful i provements in oil cabinets.

1955 G. T. Boastield, Loughborough park, Brixton. improve ments in warp tension and let-off mechanism for power looms. A communication.

1966 T. Holcroft, Bilston, improvements in the manufacture di nails and spikes.

1957 J. Crossley, Heywood, improvements in looms for weaving. 1953 P. D. Hedderwick, a new or improved apparatus for counting paper in sheets. 1959 E. Holborow, 18, Ledbary-street, Commercial road, Peekham, improvements in window sashi lastelčís.

1 J. T. Griftin. 77. Upp: Thames street, improvements in reaping and mowing machines. A communication.

PATENTS SEALED.

1868 W. Young, improvements in crates, packing cases, and travellers' and other boxes.

1870 T. Coles and W. Hen lerson, improvements in machinery for scutching flax and other fibres

serving vegetable juices and other liquids. 1371 J. Heddle, improvement in preparing, clarifying, and pre

1437 G. P. Bousfield, improvements in looms for weaving. A

communication.

1451 W. R. Lake, improvements in machines for lapping cotton and other fibrous materials. A communication.

1469 R. Harte, improvements in means and apparatus tar effecting aerial locomotion.

73 W. G. Cunningham, a machine or apparatus for cleaning and polishing boots and shoes.

80 E. A. Chamery, improvements in means and apparatus for gauging or regulating the flow of water.

93 L. Sterne and J. G. Warner, improvements in bolts fe securing parts of the permanent way of railways.

26 W. Denison and H. Teall, improvements in steam engines. 97 W. H. Balmain and W. J. Menzies, improved means loc veying and storing vitriol.

12 A. Clark and A. Van Winkle, improvements in machines for bottling soda water.

116 T. Restell, improvements in breech-loading arms and cart ridges.

117 W. Thornley, S. Spencer, and J. Wright, improvemen steam boiler and other furnaces.

122 11. A. Bonneville, improved means for warming and vi lating close carriages and boat saloons. A communication. 126 W. F. Roynolds, improvements in ships logs and sonakat machines, and in the rotators thereof.

for matches. 138 G. Baker, improvements in machinery for cutting spans

24 G. Leach, apparatus for shipping and unshipping auxiliary screw propellers whilst in deep water.

1278 C. Exter, an improved brake applicable to the rolling s of railways and other vehicles.

111 E. Leigh, improvements in the construction of the pers. nent way of railways,

123 T. R. H. Fisken, improvements in machinery for breaking and softening flax and other fibrous materials.

131 G. Lampen, improvements in the manufacture of shot 145 H. B. Barlow, improvements in machines for sizing ya A communication,

180 D. Spill, improvements in the treatment of xyloitine 193 A. M. Clark, improvements in the manufacture of cha and chain cables. A communication.

215 W. R. Lake, an improved method of and apparat operating railway switches. A communication.

28 C. F. Varley, and T. A. Rochussen, London, improvem in producing heat and light.

36 A. V. Newton, improvements in the construction of machines. A communication.

489 J. L. Norton, improvements in embroidering mach 490 G. Jones, improvements in the construction of fu effect consumption of smoke and saving of fuel.

500 A. Jeders, a new and useful machine for moulding, r ing, channeling, and stamping the soles of boots and shoes. 679 G. W. Wigner, improvements in or applicable to cent.tagal drying machines or hydro-extractors.

907

W. E. Newton, improvements in pumps or apparatus for raising water and sand and mud. A cominunication. 971 W. Smith, apparatus for working and locking railwa switches and signals.

104 J. Plaskitt, improvements in velocipedes. A commanis tion.

1186 P. Spence, improvements in the productions of the pr siate of potash, prussiate of soda, and Prussian bine.

1478 B. Perowne, improvemtnts in machinery for cutting turnips and other roots.

1491 W. R. Lake, improvements in machinery for sewing buutt and shoes. A communication.

142 T. A. de Carvalho, improvements in ships and vessels.

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NOTICE.

THE BRITISH AND MECHANIC is now incorporated with this journal.

The English Mechanic

AND

to music is reproducing within itself the same
kind of activity, the same evolution of waves and
ripples, as is here under the free heaven empic-
FOREIGN tured for our study. Let us select as a repre-
sentative channel one that gives a tone corre-
sponding to the 16ft. C C C, and is 4in. long,
in. wide, and 1gin. deep; a stream of wind
passes through it-it is not the stream that is
musical, but the ripples in it that are making the
music. If, now, we imagine the sides of the inte-
rior of this channel to present surfaces of some
fine plastic matter which shall be relatively as
sensitive to the vibrations of the air particles as
waves, and if we could look with eyes of light
into this dark aerographic camera, we should see
it on all sides taking squeezes of the air, thrilled
through with music as the heart with life, as the
brain with thought; we should see the wave of
the fundamental tone, the light shimmering har-
monics, and the sympathetic vibration of the
main reservoir of the instrument surging in, and
clouding it, as it were, with the ever-changing
shadows of its resonance.

MIRROR OF SCIENCE AND ART. the ears of corn to the undulations of the wind-
FRIDAY, JULY 29, 1870.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE
HARMONIUM.*

BY HERMANN SMITH.
THIRD DIVISION.-CHAPTER V.

OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE SHAPES OF THE
CHANNELS UPON THE TONES GIVEN BY THE REEDS.

The fineness of the musical pulsations of air is THE HE "Moabite Stone" has made us aware very difficult to conceive of; it is by similitudes that the familiar household word "squeeze that we best realize it to the mind. Shakspeare has recently been raised to the dignity of tech-likens the invisible presence of music to the wind nological usage. The "squeezes" of this laden with odour:valuable relic of antiquity have become famous. A pulpy plastic material pressed upon the face of the stone has given in fac-simile what the sculptor had written to the order of one of those rulers of Moab who ages ago had, in royal fashion, made history.

Very pleasant it is in this fair summer time to watch the waving cornfield and drink the freshening air. The broad elm plank, unsound and weather-riven, spanning the brook now dwindled to a rill, and the old iron-bound stile on which we rest awhile, mark even to us the passing away of more than one generation. An old stile-these country stiles, were they ever other than old?-and carved with quaint letters, records of the kingly idleness of village youths. Strange what a curious interest these initials excite; some seem to stare at us vacantly, as if they wanted to get away furtively out of sight; some are half obliterated, past recall, whilst others look as if they had a tale to tell if we could decipher it, and then there are those following each other so significantly in pairs that we can scarcely help questioning as we read them and wondering whether E. M. ever won M.P., whether they were united and faithful, and what history they made in the world about them, for all human life makes some sort of history, recorded or unrecorded.

Lessons in stiles, sermons in stones; these deeply-cut initials, speaking to us from the old stile, are a mould which the air fills as surely as the molten metal fills the moulds forming the solid type of which this page is composed. We wish to lead you to picture to yourself the air as possess ing in some degree the characteristics of solidity, taking form and shape, capable of giving and of receiving impressions; we would have you think of sound as though you saw it, for thus only will you be able fully to apprehend the bearing your least influence will exercise upon the form and mode of the vibration determining the quality of the sounds issuing from our harmonium channels.

Like the sweet south
That breathes upon a bank of violets,
Stealing and giving odour.

And another of England's worthies in a converse
aspect likens odour to music-

The breath of flowers is farre sweeter in the aire
(where it comes and goes like the warbling of musick)
than in the hand.

The sensitive substantiality which we demand in imagination has been in some measure achieved in the remarkably beautiful device, the phonautograph of M. Leon Scott, which we hope before long to introduce to the readers of these papers with suitable illustrations. Our present brief reference only admits of saying that this little apparatus visibly deciphers the pulsations of the enclosed air when agitated by musical sounds, and with a stylex indelibly registers its waves, both great and small.

The channel gives a tone which is the united product of two agents; the reed defines a tone of certain pitch, the channel moulds that tone and impresses it with the forces of its own nature. The character and influence of the channel we have to investigate; the disposition of the reed belongs to a distant branch of enquiry. Let us carry our microscopic research a step further and see what is going on in the recesses of our soundboard. We are familiar with the term 16ft. organ pipe, or C C C pipe; the definite length named expresses a theoretical approximation to the mundane relation of air in respect of the velocity of sound as attained by an enclosed column of air vibrating in its least constrained condition, a condition nevertheless dependent on human rearing and fostering for that approximateness. The word "mundane" is introduced in order to draw your thoughts a little way out of the beaten track, and by it we mean that relatedness which exists in the constitution of things-the free nature in contradistinction to that relatedness which springs from human design, which is favoured by the forecaste of intellect and is Lift your eyes again. The waving cornfield is thus an artistic relatedness. Therefore it is not taking squeezes "of the air; now deeply fur- only the 16ft. pipe that gives a C C C note. Art rowed with undulations, now shimmering in brought about the coincident relation of length shallow ripples, chequered with currents that of pipe and pitch of note, and can produce the intermingle and cross each other, glinting in the same result with infinite variety of lengths brilliance of the sun's rays, or tinted with the and proportions. In the fluepipes of an organ shadows of the travelling clouds. The broad air is setting air in vibration, an elastic force conwhite path divides the standing corn, yet breaks spiring with an elastic medium, agent and renot the long undulating roll; the wave passes on- cipient are of the same substance-air of air, fluid wards, but the ears of corn are rooted to their of fluid; the power to influence each the other is places-like anchored boats they rock to and fro reciprocal; nature is least trammelled in this obedient to the pulses of the wind. The great original state, yet none the less is the product wave of air is shaping itself in the undulations due to the union of two distinct activities-one and ripples that are made visible to us upon the we may call the generating, the other the resonyielding surface of the corn. The comparison ating. The soft sweet pure tone of the flute organof corn ears and particles of air is almost as that pipe is produced with the nearest approach to the of stars and dust, so wide is the difference of freedom of nature; it is so mellow and clear bemagnitudes. We are to understand the vibra- cause the sound the mouthpiece can give with tions of air as movements of minutest particles greatest ease is likewise the normal tone of the agitated with the pulsations recognised by us as sounds, and undulating in the same manner as pipe itself. The column of air contained in the pipe when these ears of corn under the rushing of the wind- it is excited to vibration, spontaneously divides River or rivulet, the activity is the same; into vibrating proportional parts, divides into the stream wanders away whilst the ripples are nodes and segments, at the half of the length, at constant, for they are localised. Every organ pipe, tube, or channel giving voice and so absolute is the division that we can measure the third, at the fourth, at the eighth, and so on, The copyright of this treatise is reserved by the the distances with accuracy, and if at such points we sever the pipe and hold the one half above the

wave.

author.

other, leaving a little interval between, the undulations will still pass to and fro as little interfered with as the cornfield's rolling billows by the path that makes its emerald sea seem riven with whiteness as with a beam of light.

From the great to the small. The channel of the harmonium in comparison with the organ pipe is as the little meadow brook to the broad river; yet both are subject to the same laws. As we learn theoretically that the tone wave in the organ pipe subdivides itself into aliquot parts, and have the means of practically demonstrating that it does so as clearly as that a vibrating string divides into nodes and segments, so also we know that the channel behaves in like manner. The pulse generated by the reed's activity travels from end to end, and is thrown back in rhythmic recoil, meeting the next transmitted pulse at the half distance. The exactness accordant with the theory is not practically arrived at, because there are certain disturbing elements to be taken into calculation as affecting the results; yet for illustration we assume the theoretical distances as sufficiently accurate; therefore, in our representative channel the wave should divide or strike its nodal distance at the half-2 in.—just as in the 16ft. organ pipe it would at 8ft. The similarity of action in these small channels rests on the principle called "multiple resonance that is to say, that smaller pipes or channels, if of any length, of which the larger pipe is a multiple, will equally respond in resonance to the note of the same pitch; thus, to a reed giving the note the same in pitch as that given by a 16ft. fluepipe, we should find a pipe of 2ft. length would yield a perfect consonance, so also 1ft. and 6in., 4, 3, 2, 1, and many other proportions more or less agreeing.

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Or, to put the statement in more exact reference to number of vibrations instead of length of pipe -a multiple being a number which exactly contains another several times-a column of air will not only enter into vibration when it is capable of producing the same sound-namely, that which is the unison of the sound of the vibrating body or agent, but also when the number of the vibrations which it is capable of making is any simple multiple of that which the original agent produces; therefore, the shorter the tube or channel, the less its power of resonance to reinforce the original tone, for the multiple is too compound to give much aid, whilst the more simple the multiple, the greater is the energy of the resonance. The simplest multiple of vibrations, 32 in number, is, of course, 64, namely, the relation of the vibrations of the 8ft. pipe to those of the 16ft., or twice contained; the vibrations of a channel of 6in. amount to 1,024, a multiple which contains the original number 32 times. Theory says that the resonance is only the tone naturally belonging to the channel superadded to the note of the reed, and actually nothing more than a high harmonic to the reed's note. Theory again says the simplest multiple gives the most energetic resonance, but practice gives very different results, and affirms many limitations unheeded by philosophers in their study. Bye and bye, we shall reach the point for further explanations on this subject; what is now said should be sufficient for the present understanding of what is meant by " multiple resonance."

To secure the working of this principle it is necessary that the exciting agent should rule the air, the generator be more powerful than the resonator, thus metal against air dominates the pitch. If our 16ft. tone reed is mated to a channel that is in true sympathy with itself, the resultant tone will be clear, pure, and smooth in quality, but if the channel is not of the correct proportion it will have a tendency to divide the wave not into parts of which a 16ft. is the multiple, but into some other spaces; the wave in recoil would either fall short of the half distance or go beyond it and get broken or collided, and the smaller fragmentary waves so originated would aid and abet the predominance of the subsidiary tones or natural harmonics which the reed is always ready to set up when unrestrained by the sympathy that should develope only its better nature.

It is quite an accident of art that we obtain the C C C note from an organ pipe that is 16ft. in length. Very unorthodox is the doctrine we here teach and offer for your acceptance, but perhaps you will not mind if you find that the facts supporting the heresy give a clearer insight into musical realities. We arrive at accurate proporcombined reed and channel to give an agreeable tions of channels equally by accident. Finding a flute-like tone we take it as a standard whence we deduce the relative degrees of length of all other

channels intended to occupy the same rank or make up one register. The spaces we have to deal with are too minute for measuring off by aliquot parts, and the multifarious influences associated with the action of the channel preclude any reliance on rule and compass by arbitrary calculation. All our channels are marked off to scales, which are the practical result of observation and long-tried experience. Having succeeded in pairing the reed and channel in faithful consonance, the amateur will naturally come to the conclusion that there is nothing more to be desired and we ought to be happy ever after. Yet such is the perversity of our inclinations, perfection does not altogether content us-we want variety, we notice peculiarities a little incorrect, and take a liking to them; thus bassoon, oboe, and clarion tone display marked dissonances, yet they please and are a grateful change to the ear. Scales of imperfect correspondence are therefore worked out and secured in permanence. The same method is adopted for these as for the consonant. A good specimen is noticed and taken for a standard for the series. It is easy to drive a number of horses abreast in a curve if skill has been acquired to apply the check on the reins in due proportion all along the line. The condition of all such channels is one of coercion, the reed has an overbearing influence more or less and the channel obeys its master, shaping the form of its waves on the easiest course the circumstances admit of.

It should not be supposed from this statement that any haphazard conjunction of reeds and channels will work equally well, for without choice and selection we should find, in a large majority of instances, there would be incompatibilities of disposition so prominent, conditions so strained, that neither partner would support the other, the channel would be dull, taciturn, unsympathetic, and the reed either coarse and harsh, or sinking to the opposite extremesluggish in speech and uncertain in intonation. In our next chapter we shall present a tabulated view of a series of five sets of scales of proven value.

I

(To be continued.)

COMETS AND METEORS.

BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S.
Author of "Other Worlds than Ours," &c., &c.

(Continued from page 363). CONSIDER it a very fortunate circumstance that precisely when the question has been put to me whence I gather my conviction that countless millions of meteor-systems exist within the solar family, I should have been on the point of laying my evidence in the matter before the tens of thousands who read the ENGLISH MECHANIC. Before proceeding to unfold the absolutely convincing evidence which recent discoveries have in my opinion supplied in this matter, let me promise that at each step (as I promised when I began these papers), I will indicate whether the argument I am about to use is certain or simply founded on a greater or less degree of probability.

more distant parts of their paths may be regarded as absolutely nil.

It is then a merely fortuitous circumstance that the meteoric systems traversed by the earth cross her orbit as they do. A meteor system having its path assigned to it as it were at random (so far as the earth is concerned), by the attractions of the giant outer planets, might happen to cross the earth's path,-precisely as a musket bullet fired at random might happen to strike a distant telegraph wire. But precisely as the chance against this latter event occurring would be indefinitely small, so would be that against the former also. Now if a great number of meteorsystems had paths assigned to them in this way, there would be nothing very wonderful in the fact that one amongst them had a path given to it which intersected the earth's orbit, precisely as there would be nothing wonderful in a telegraph-wire being struck by one among a flight of bullets.

Now it is a legitimate application of the laws of probability to accept a less wonderful interpretation of an observed fact in preference to an interpretation which is more wonderful. Suppose, for instance, that we know nothing of a certain coin except that it has been tossed ten or twelve times running and each time "head" has turned up, we should reason justly that in all probability both sides of the coin were alike, because, if not, the observed result is so very surprising. Or, again, if a teetotum has ten sides marked with numbers not known to us, and we observe after spinning it, say a hundred times, that a particular number has appeared ninety times or so, while only one other number has appeared, we should be justified in concluding that certainly that first number was marked on more than one face of the teetotum, and that probably it was marked on nine faces out of the ten. For it would be an altogether amazing accident if the same face appeared ninety times or so in a hundred trials, while there would be nothing surprising in the fact that a certain number appeared so often if that number were marked on several faces of the teetotum.* In all such cases, speaking generally, that state of things which renders the observed result least surprising is the most probable.

The existence of a few meteor-systems only would make the earth's encountering one meteorsystem such a very surprising coincidence that we are justified in concluding that for each meteorsystem the earth encounters there are many circuiting around the sun. The argument would be strong if the earth encountered but one system; it would be immensely strengthened if she encountered two; but it becomes overwhelmingly strong under the actual circumstance that she encounters more than half a hundred. We are in fact, free in the actual case to simply multiply the number of systems actually encountered by the number which should exist to make the chances even that the earth would encounter one. What this last number may be it would be somewhat difficult to determine; but no one who considers the multitude of positions in which an orbit of great extent and electricity might be placed without coming near the earth's orbit can doubt that it is very large indeed. Thus, then, merely from the fact that the earth encounters such and such a number of meteor-systems, we have been led to the conclusion that the actual number of such systems must be enormous.

But we have reason for believing that there exists an actual condensation of meteoric systems in the neighbourhood of the sun, and if this condensation can be established we shall have yet further to increase our estimate of the total number of meteors which exist at every instant of time in the sun's neighbourhood.

We have seen that two of the meteoric systems encountered by the earth have been proved to travel on orbits of great eccentricity, their most distant parts lying many times farther from the sun than the earth is. Now no other meteoric systems have yet been dealt with in the same way. But the evidence derived from these two is quite sufficient to force upon us the conviction that meteoric systems are in no way dependent upon the earth, as we might have imagined if the November and Angust meteors had been found to I cannot prove the existence of this condensation travel in a nearly circular orbit at about the directly; but I can show it to be highly probable, earth's distance from the sun; and we feel by attending to what has been shown about the strengthened in this assurance when we learn that connection between meteoric systems and comets. probable evidence has been derived from the re- What the nature of that connection may in reality currence of certain meteoric displays in December be I do not pretend to know. Whether every and April, in favour of the view that two other meteoric system is associated with a comet and systems have orbits about as eccentric as the path every comet with a meteoric system I do not preof the November meteors.* Further, good tend to assert. What has been actually shown is reasons have been given for believing that other simply this, that the only two meteoric systems meteoric systems besides the November and whose orbits have been determined have been August systems, are associated, as those systems found to travel on the same paths as two comets. are, with comets travelling in paths of greater or No one can deny that, so far as the evidence at less eccentricity.

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present goes, probabilities are in favour of the view that the tracks of most comets are followed by multitudes of minute bodies such as form our meteoric systems. There seems no reason to suppose the two comets above dealt with to be exceptional. Nay, further, it has been shown in the case of other comets which pass near the earth's orbit, that when the earth comes past the point of nearest approach meteoric displays ordinarily take place. Without at all insisting, then, that comets must necessarily have meteoric attendants travelling on their track, I yet dwell on the fact that probabilities are in favour of this being the case with at least a large proportion of the comets which belong to the solar system.

The

Now these comets show a marked tendency to aggregation in the sun's neighbourhood. following table, one of Mr. Dunkin's very valuable additions to Lardner's" Handbook of Astronomy," affords most instructive evidence in this respect. The first column indicates the limits of distance from the sun estimated in millions of miles, within which the cometic perihelia are counted. The second indicates the relative cubical content of space included within those limits. Of course the cubical content of spheres whose diameters increase as the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., varies as the numbers 1, 8, 64, 125, &c., and so the innermost sphere and the successive shells have volumes relatively as 1 (8-1), (27 −8), (64 — 27), (125–64), &c. The third column indicates the number out of every 100 discovered comets whose point of nearest approach to the sun lies within the limits of distance referred to in the first column. And, finally, we obtain the density with which such points of nearest approach are spread through these spaces by dividing the number of points in each space by the number expressing the extent of that space. Mr. Dunkin's table runs thus:

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Nothing can be more convincing than the last column of this table. It indicates not merely an increase of density in the sun's neighbourhood, but a very rapid increase.

But applying this to the case of meteorie systems-assuming, that is to say, that what has thus been proved to be true respecting comets is true also of meteoric systems-there remains yet something more to be said. I can show that. apart from this form of increase of density sunwards, there must be an increase resulting from the mere ellipticity of the meteoric orbits.

Suppose the meteors of a system to travel one after another along the same track precisely put this merely for convenience), and not at equa distances all round the orbit, but (still for ea venience) in such a way that they pass th perihelion of their track (the point nearest the sun) at equal intervals of time, such inters being very minute. Then they will pass te aphelion of their track (the point farthest from the sun) at these same equal and minute intervals of time. But they travel faster in perihelion than in aphelion, and so traverse greater spaces in these equal intervals of time. Obrusy, therefore, they are farther apart when nearest to the sun. It might seem, accordingly, that I have proved precisely the reverse of what i promised in the preceding paragraph, and that the peculiarities of motion in elliptic orbits wonde cause meteors to be more sparsely distributed near the sun than at a distance from him. And yet, paradoxical as it sounds, thongh meteoric systems open out their ranks as they approach the sun, and close up their ranks as they travel meteoric systems will always be more crowded in from him, the members of a set of elliptic the sun's neighbourhood than at a distance from him. The reason simply is, that the perihelis of the systems are crowded in a smaller space than the aphelia; and one can easily show that this is more effective to increase crowding in the sun's neighbourhood than the other relation is diminish such crowding.

to

Suppose, for instance, we take 1,000,000 meteoric systems in every possible position, but all alike in shape, and ten times farther from the sun in aphelion than in perihelion. Then the men

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