[4400.]-MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS, DIATOMS, ETC. -Would any of our microscopic friends, Mr. Anderson, or the author of thejottings now appearing in our MECHANIC kindly answer the following? My holidays commence in a few days, and I am desirous of going to the sea-side, but wish to steer my course to where I could find a good variety of marine objects for the microscope, especially 4044 diatoms-if in the neighbourhood of chalk hills where foraminifera can be found so much the better. I 4049 know there are plenty of objects to be found anywhere 4050 on the sea-side, but I specially want to procure diatoms, and if chalk cliffs are near so much the better.-HUNTER. 4059 [4401.]-CHEMICAL.-Will "Urban," or "Mr. G. E. Davis," kindly give me precise instructions how to convert 2oz. or 3oz. of ferro-cyanide of potassium into the red ferric salt? I have tried, by means of a current of chlorine, but find myself embarrassed by the K Cl and a green substance in attempting to crystallise the ferric salt out.-PRUSSIAN BLUE.

1987. G. Sconcia, New Coventry-street, Leicester-square, improvements in machinery or apparatus for reducing wood, metal, or other hard material to fixed patterns. A communication. 1983. W. E. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, improvements in connting registers.

1980. J. Humphrys, Hull, improvements in steam engines. 1990. W. R. Lake, an improved machine for manufacturing spools. A communication. 1991. W. Brown, St. Mary-street, Portsmouth, improvements in the construction of screw propellers.

1992. C. J. Curtis and A. Fiddes, Bristol, an improved fireproof composition for safes.

1993. H. M. Nicholls, 149, Great Portland-street, improvements in printing machines. 1994. H. Wilson, mechanical Stockton-on-Tees, improved arrangements for cooling and heating liquids. 1995. A. Wenner, Manchester, improvements in fire-bars and grates. A communication.

1996. T. Halliday, Hailington, N.B., improvements in extracting water or other liquids from clothes or other fabrics or fibres. 1997. J. H. Johnson, improvements in packings and in bearing surfaces. A communication.

1998. C. M. Barker, 12, Kennington-park-road, improvements in steam generators.

1999. W. E. Gedge, 11, Wellington-street, Strand, an improved method of incorporating metal and cement in the construction of

tanks, boxes, vases, or pots for horticultural and other purposes.

2008. J. Wakefield, Dublin, and D. M'Dowell, Waterlerd
provements in rails for railways and tramways, and i
tyres for railways and tramways.
2009. H. Baines, Normanton, improvements in repair
or damaged rails of permanent way.
2010. R. Dudgeon, New York, U.S., improvements
engines.

and hammers, also applicable to machinery for driving p
2011. W. Husband, Hayle, improvements in pneumati
ting, splitting, or dressing stone, and for boring rocks.
2012. N. J. Amies, Manchester, improvements
machines.

2018. J. Spiller, Salcombe Lodge, Salcombe Regis, improve on and application of certain machinery to, the process of facturing flour from wheat.

2014. A. Jackson, Loman-street, Southwark, improved s of supplying boilers with water.

2015. P. A. Blondel, 23, Boulevard de Strasbourg, an in lamp for burning mineral oils and essences.

2016. 8. Tuddenham, Lower Marsh, Lambeth, improvem
the manufacture of twisted metal work.

2017. G. Hartley, Aldermanbury, improvements in secu
of boots.
2018. H. G. Avery, Hackney, an improvement in say th
2019. A. Jack, Maybole, Ayrshire, a new or improved peal
tural implement adapted for digging potatoes.

2020. H. Ramsten, Carlskrona, improvements in ships to
2021. S. G. A. Terry, Burnham, Bucks, improvements is
ratus for preparing finings for fining beer and other liqu
communication.

2022. W. Roberts, Inverness, and W. Stroudly, Bright, in provements in weighing machines.

for

2023. J. Walker, Wolverhampton, improvements in machinery
making railway and other spikes or bolts.

2024. W. S. Bentley and W. Isham, mechanic, Boston, Linerin
shire,improvements in apparatus for economising and parifying D
2025. C. Samuel, Ludgate-hill, improvements in articles appl
cable for advertising purposes.

E

NOTICE.

BRITISH

AND

FOREIGN

CHANIC is now incorporated with this of some continental countries in the art of

al.

he English Mechanic

AND

RROR OF SCIENCE AND ART. by Prussia; at the capricious crowd of Dresden

FRIDAY, AUGUST 5, 1870.

THE EXHIBITION AT ISLINGTON.

VE

man

The Bavarian work

pietra dura, by the Florentine artists, who, with for it is a remarkable circumstance that on the their painted stone strawberries and raspberries, part of foreigners, very few illustrations are given are not ashamed to invoke applause by present- of eccentricities-using the term eccentricity in ing in a semi-transparent stone the pips of a its proper sense-of industry. Thus the Italian, sham cuirant and the filament of an apocryphal who exhibits a railway model, is generally a gooseberry. We do not envy the progress railway engineer; we do indeed find one of this capricious nation, who, being a music-master, veneer, the revival, by Spain, of her old aims at elevating himself from that desolate damascening dexterity, the restoration, for position by taking out a patent for cleanVenice, of her historical superiority in glass- ing rice; we also discover a genius which witness the copies from the Murano works and can fire guns without powder; but from the plains the early mosaics, and the gold-enclosing mould of Lombardy come ploughs, drilling and thrashthat produce so sumptuous an effect. We look, ing machines, and mill hoppers; from Genoa for only a moment, at the German stamped and models of ships; from Florence specimens in coloured leathered wall hangings; at the stiff, marble; and from Rome revivals of that antique stately, and academic decorative art patronized art which, although a thousand armies may march among her ruins, she can never forget. nymphs in fantastic dresses and nymphs in none, The Germans, too, while ambitious in their inplagiarising a phase of art which lost all value tellect, and self-exalting enough for the satisfacand meaning when it ceased to represent the tion of any human pride, are present with a very frivolous age in which it originated; at the Ger- humble class of inventions and handicraft. The Gothicism; the Teniers tapestry; the Austrians, who do not understand their own Belgian lace; and, indeed, not a few visitors will capacities, are here with suggestions, which it be puzzled to see them at all, or to find a record might take ten battles to make them work out, so E have noticed, upon a broad ground, and of them anywhere, for this, though an Inter- fond are they of slumbering upon their fame in detail, the plan of this and similar national, is yet a comparatively humble Exhibi- and of reposing on their sense of dignity. Even ibitions. It is with a sincere desire of recom- tion. It has no streets of stalls bright with gold, the Bavarian beats them. nding them that we now venture to point out jewels, and art, and exulting in all the luxury of man is not the type of any peculiar genius, but istake or two, which, it may be, cannot be a Western Lower Empire; but it contains, never- he certainly represents a taste and a spirit which ily avoided, but which are certainly detri- theless, examples of which we may well feel we must emphatically commend. If, in this ntal. One is the converting of an exhibition proud; in furniture, costly and cheap; the notice, returning to the British departments, we o a bazaar. This is an error, and might be- utilizing of common woods for ornamental pur- have not signalized in many cases the works of me an abuse, to tolerate so much of the bazaar poses; tasteful carpet patterns; the fancy our own countrymen, it is really because they are inciple, by which the attention is distracted majolica, Palissy, and neo-classical wares for so numerous and so good, and the names deservom inventions and works of merit to mere- which Worcestershire and Staffordshire stand un-ing recognition are so many, that we fear to make There can be no doubt cious stalls piled with Parisian trinkets, the rivalled; tiles for mural decoration, as different an invidious choice. scinating trash of toy-shops, gew-gaws, and from Dresden as fire is from frost; wrought-iron, in saying, as the Standard said, recently, that her trifles made only to be sold. Another is cast, and bronzed work; incised stones for pave- this is the very best workman's exhibition, e arrangement of the collections. They are so ment, and so forth. Industry, in this, as in other answering to its declared purpose, taken for all omposed as to be perfectly incomprehensible. countries, is now fighting a fair battle with the in all, in an honest and comprehensive manner, It is full of e might multiply our protests; but the idea imperfections, prejudices, and forgetfulness of that ever was held in England. nd the development of the exhibition are so the past. It has taken into partnership art on suggestion, of ingenuity, and of proofs that the -nerally excellent that we prefer to refrain from the one hand and science on the other, and we working class mind has been very beneficially e fulfilment of an ungracious duty. The only already witness many triumphs of the combina- turned within the last twenty years towards ne upon which we would emphatically insist is tion. We have no longer reason to confess, for artistic studies. We would warn both the exat against the puffery and shoppiness so mani- example, any inferiority in gem work, although hibitors and the visitors, however, at the Agristly encouraged, of course for financial reasons. we may not, in Lord Macaulay's language, con- cultural Hall against the danger of one false oo much ostentation is permitted to wedding-ceive like Titans and execute like jewellers. It impression. They may be perfectly certain as to ake, to patent mustards and starches, to dealers is for us a matter of more interest to consider the authorship of a particular subsoil madder a largely-advertised sauces, to instantaneous the gradations by which in useful elaboration, our plough, a pair of galvan kates, the matrice of oothache cures, to fancy labels, and to hair- workmen and those of other countries are comyes. Too much space is afforded for articles peting and we indicate this all the more disrought here less for show than for sale, which tinctly, because of an immense amount of useless ncumber the exhibition, vitiate the perception work exhibited. The man who makes two blades f the bewildered multitude, damage the interests of grass grow where one grew before, is, accordf the conscientious manufacturer, and have no ing to ancient wisdom, a human benefactor, but hore relation to the genuine objects for which he who writes the Lord's Prayer on a threepenny he Agricultural Hall has been opened in this piece, or includes the uniforms of all the British roiling month than the American compounds army in a blanket, or builds a cathedral out of which are consumed, or the bootjacks of the Re- champagne corks, or levies a tax upon every ormation period. We pass on gladly, among forest of America to make a table top, may be he improvements: those in photography, now very ingenious, and persevering, and patient, yet the livelihood of thousands and the enjoyment of there is invariably in such labour something sugmillions; the substitution of electricity for the gestive of the cripple. There is no objection, if casting of statues, and for the costly old methods there be not much use, in men diverting themof gilding and silvering; the new dyeing pro- selves from their habitual employments in order cesses; the elaboration and simplification, at the to engage in totally opposite pursuits. Still, we same time, of machinery; the comparison of will frankly say that in the industrial race, the raw material and simple industry with the results principle ne sutor ultra crepidam holds good, if when the one has been transformed into a it be intended that the workman shall rise higher mechanism, and the other elevated into an art. in his vocation. We have every respect for the We traverse the various regions and discover ingenuity which prompted a coffee refiner to conlittle to regret in the difference between our trive a dish preventing those proverbial rogues selves and other nations. However exquisitely the bakers-from purloining Sunday mutton; for they work the Italian beauty is not worth the the compositor who has fulfilled his dream of a English strength. Certain ancient Oriental perfect fire-escape; for the violinist who has expeople, appreciating colour by instinct, knowing hausted his genius upon a rat-trap, and especially no fatigue in the perfection of detail, holding the for the self-sacrificing member of the Fire goldsmith and the jeweller in especial honour, Brigade for proposing a method by which he feminine in the softness and gaiety of their and the body to which he belongs will be fabrics, jubilant in their employment of the altogether superfluous. Still, while thoroughly imagination, eclipse us, no doubt, in their own admitting that men are entitled to exhibit their sky. We invariably fail when we endeavour to versatile capacities, and enjoy the value of their imitate the rich stuffs of Kashmir or the cele- patents, we do think seriously that in many cases, brated Bombay work; but when your Hindu or although they may expect to reap benefits, they your Chinaman comes to attempt a pianoforte or a will be disappointed. Thus, what can a timesofa he is once more a barbarian and a bungler, keeper on an omnibus station hope from his and nothing else. Again, we do not follow Russia model of a ballot box; and what can a Governwith her silver and enamelled bookbindings, and ment clerk anticipate from the adoption, if ever, ecclesiastical plate-illustrating a fashion of his peculiar street-sweeping machine? Let us which combines modern feeling with the remi- allow that men do often hit, to the right or the niscence and admiration of Byzantine, of Renais- left of their own marked paths, upon ideas which sance, and even of the Flamboyant era, which have fertilized into both applause and profit; but was imported, with some elegant ideas of Cir- the ground safe for working men's exhibitions is, cassian origin, from Poland. Those blazing upon the whole, best chosen when it brings the pictures, on resplendent gold grounds, and those working man as a working man, and in his own stately malachite doors, prominent in all inter- selected walk, into competition with his fellows. national exhibitions, do not represent the English It was, we imagine, with this view the workshop genius; nor the imperial splendour of the Sèvres porcelain, nor the floral incrustations, in

rivalry was proposed at Islington. The inter-
national scheme is not in this respect represented;

a silk-weaving apparatus, or a stopchamfer, or a singular alpenstock, which we observed, and which, as it appeared to us, differed in no respect from other alpenstocks except in so far as it was more likely to cast you off your feet, or bring down an avalanche upon your head. We believe these advantages are much appreciated by Alpine tourists, but we refrain from mentioning the inventor on account of the statute against complicity in manslaughter. We do, however, conjure the public, regarding this as an Industrial International Exhibition, to put no faith in the Fine Arts as represented there. We say no faith, but we should say little. Many earnest and assiduous art-students have sent their works, and we should be sorry to detract from the merit of their efforts-flowers in water-colours, pen-andink drawings, stencil designs, crayon portraits, pretty pictures on fans, free-hand outlines and amateur engravings; but if the friends of the working men who exhibit at Islington, genuinely wish to obtain a knowledge of art historically they must not accept as original a single picture on the walls purporting to be from the hand of an old master. They ought not to be thus deceived. Why, to judge from this display, you might imagine Da Vincis, Michael Angelos, Giorgiones, Titians, Tintorettos, Corraces, and Vandykes were as common in Dalston and other suburbs of London as cucumbers are in Saxony! There is an impudent attempt to palm off the head of a girl as a Grenze. Our National Gallery is bad enough, but it is not so poor that these Dalston and other suburban collections, including one from the misty remoteness of Epping, can be acknowledged as eclipsing it. There are some pictures worth the covering ten times over of their surfaces with gold, and worth also that worship at the most sacred altar of the human mind, speaking in a human sense, which beauty is entitled to, and which if not conceded will be demanded; but it is an insult to working men to bring together such a congerie of replicas and copies when we know that the originals, which we ourselves have seen, are scattered through the great galleries of Europe. And, upon this consideration, we beg to tell our artisan friends that whatever else they admire at the Agricultural Hall, they will do wisely in our humble opinion, to regard the pictures as

being generally the works of dishonest copyists, worth less respect than their frames, which are the work of honest workmen.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE
HARMONIUM.*

BY HERMANN SMITH.

THIRD DIVISION.-CHAPTER V. (continued.)
THE INFLUENCE OF THE
SHAPES OF
CHANNELS UPON THE TONES GIVEN BY THE REEDS.

OF

THE

have noted and remembered the ever-varied form small; two apertures are requisite for ob and the ever-varied music. Wind and wave are the full advantage, a fact which suggests that the the same, but every locality has its special bifurcation of the windpipe into the two bro features of elevation, depression, and environ- tubes may play a not unimportant part in ment, which shape the course of wind and wave, acoustical relations of the vocal organs; as, compel them to assume distinctive character, force, further, we incline to believe that these it and form, and determine the quality of the sounds secting bands, elastic themselves, and alles they give life to; each woodland and each shore a yielding movement in the rings may tend to is musical with harmonies which are its own and the places at which the nodal divisions st none others. strike, indifferent to theoretical precision If we should place the same reed on each of securing a perfect sympathy between the p these differently-shaped channels, and in imagi- each note in the varied scale of the voic nation view the interiors, we should unquestion- the vibrations of the windpipe, which, he ably find that in the "squeezes" not one would supple, never changes to any corresponding er mould the same record as another, each would indeed, for all theoretical calculation, it give a different history of the forms impressed by said to remain practically at one length. 7 the tonal forces active within its bounds. we consider the human organ of voice and: Professor Tyndall in his last lecture on elec- in the light of our experience with free rem tricity showed how hard it was to cut through in the constant study of the peculiaritis the magneto-electric current, how the pure space manifest, the whole conformation of the i seemed to be occupied by a solid viscous substance and, indeed, every detail of the structures resisting passage through it; the impalpable put vocal organs, seem to acquire new mes on solidity and demonstrated an existence which design, and we perceive more and was invisible. Although air is shapeless and in- wondrous beauty and perfection as a tangible, yet whenever the particles of air are ex-strument. All the allusions we have cited to vibration there is a residential force intended to render you conscious the 2 within capable of taking form and of impressing invisible world of sound which we seek tre There are five orders of channels. 1. The whatever opposes the free involution of its waves. form is potent. channel having the reed-veneer and the pallet- It seems to possess more substance. Opposition (To be continued.) veneer parallel to each other. 2. Having them changes the contour of the aerial undulations, and convergent. 3. Divergent. 4. Curved reed-if your active interposition is sufficiently near the veneer expanded toward pallet aperture. Curved reed-veneer, with depth under reed aperture and contracted under pallet aperture.

The difficulty of understanding vibratory action consists in this, that the movement of the parts of air, in which sound consists, travels along, but that the parts of air themselves do not travel, but are anchored like standing corn.-DR. WHEWELL. THE scales or dimensions of the channels of THE each register will be but one part of the calcuation; the style or shape to be adopted is another; and these styles or shapes are interchangeable with the several scales; hence it will readily be understood that out of the combinations many varieties of character may be obtained, even if no other influences are taken into con

sideration.

5.

Each shape of channel having a different power over the reed, and on the composition of the waves surging to and fro in the interior, we should endeavour to estimate in our minds what would be the physical effects of whatever variations we arbitrarily determine. The visible aspect of nature will be our best guide; of the weight and impact of air we are fully conscious, and between air and water a very close analogy of movement exists. You who have wandered by the wondrous ocean, who have watched the ad vancing undulations, have heard them breaking on long lengths of sandy shore, rolling up steep pebbly beaches, or dashing with wild recoil on cliffs precipitous; or, in nature's calmer mood, seen the bright waves careering in graceful forms, prancing among boulders, and curvetting as if for their own delight in quiet coombes; you will

The copyright of this treatise is reserved by the

author.

source of sound it will in some degree transform
the quality of the sound; and even as you may
change the colour of a beam of light by refracting
or reflecting media interposed in its path, so the
quality of musical tones already defined may be
changed by the media through which the sounds
Some
are transmitted before they affect the ear.
modern lamps have large opal glass shades which,
like bells, produce musical tones. A series of
these milk-white gongs, chosen according to the
pitch of the notes they give, would ring a fine elfin
peal, for they throw off tones of lovely quality;
if you strike one of these and whilst it is sound-
ing place your hand within the bell, waving your
hand to and fro you will sensibly alter the tone
then resounding, both in pitch and quality, and
will feel as it were the tingling shock of modulated
form and rebounded undulations; your fingers are
as breakers amid the mimic ocean, raising the
foam of the white sea-horses, breaking the waves
into new forms crested with harmonics. In as-
sociation with this experiment we remember that
Professor Airy considers that the hissing scream
sometimes heard when the long Atlantic wave
rolls up to the shore is due to the harmonics
arising from the breaking of the wave into surf.
Ole Bull possesses a famous old violin, one that has
a history and is worth more than its weight in
gold, and it is said to have been for so many
generations in the companionship of gifted artists
that its interior has become marked-

Ribbed as the brown sea sand,

by the incessant surging of its musical waves.
The human larynx is formed of a number of
cartilaginous rings connected by membranous
bands. In reference to our subject it may be
worth the thought whether these be not aids to
the nodal division of the vibrating column of air;
the purpose usually recognized in these elastic
intersecting bands is for the elongation of the
pipe. We seem to perceive another value in
them, our experience in harmoniums favouring
the hint. Frequently we find that the true
vibration of certain reeds is blurred, the intona-
tion imperfect, and by no manipulation of the
reed or channel can we overcome the defect; yet
if we insert a flexible band of leather at the side
or bottom of the register chamber, the correct
articulation is gained in a moment-a simple
remedy for a serious fault and discovered by
accident. How are we to understand the cause
and cure? When the body of air under the reeds
confined by the rigid walls of the chamber is set
in strong vibration by one of the bass reeds, there
appears to be so great a contention of opposing
motions at one particular place that the free
disposition of the waves into their natural division
is prevented, the crowd and the returning crowd
meet in a walled-in passage, and neither will give
way; under some reed or other they come to a
deadlock, and the reed is unable to force its way
out of channel or get room to strike. By allowing
some degree of expansion at this tight place we
ease the crowd, help the waves over their difficulty,
and let them pass again freely. The speech of
all the series of reeds is benefited by it, and it is
noticeable also that one opening out to the leather
band is not satisfactory, whether it is large or

THE FLUTE AND ITS VICISSITUDE
BY SABLE.
(Continued from page 411.)

FB

THE NICHOLSON ERA. NEW there are who have not scraped an acquaint ance with the flute, usually in younger and happier days, when the heart was fresh, trusting, buoyant with hope; when life's sun shone cheerily, casting no shadow on the path, and the wide world seemed one vast pleasure-ground. But as Old Time aroused us from youthful dreams, pressing upon us the stern realities and cares of sober manhood, and as the broad surging stream of life swept us onward, its ever varying currents have separated us widely from the friends and pursuits of earlier years: not that we forget them, although with some of us the sun is now behind, and a long evening shadow is thrown before us as we journey on; yet bygones are still dear to us, and we warm towards everything that recalls them, as we we! come the simple wild flowers because they remin us of joyous childhood's days, the green fields which we rambled "fancy free," and the spreading trees under which we sat while weaving our floral treasures into bright garlands. In the bustle of after-life all such things have drifted far into the past, but it is good to be reminded d them now and then, for it keeps the heart young Such a remembrancer is the flute to many. we look at our old friends snugly reposing in t faded velvet of their old-fashioned cases, or lying on the side-tables of our sitting-rooms, eary associations crowd into our minds-once again live in the past and forget for a brief period t corroding anxieties of the present.

The flute has ever been a favourite, and a reason is obvious; no other instrument, with 2 exception of the violin, so nearly resemble human voice in quality or can render a nat melody with such sweetness and pathos. T the flute sufficiently well to please requires s more than a moderate ear and a little appli and yet the flute was born amidst ignorance reared in barbarism. The Hon. and Rev. 1 Skeffington thus describes its aboriginal stat "it had six finger-holes, one mouthpiece, and unconquerable objection to being played in tune" As it grew to maturity it gave painful evidence of a sadly neglected education; it was rude, rongi, and retained most of its disagreeable propensities The old German flute is too well known to ned much description. It is a portentous affair, with a pursed up embouchure, small finger holes so wide apart that the bare sight of them is enough to provoke the cramp in all one's knuckles. It boasts of a D sharp key, which is all the more imposing from its loneliness. Its voice is rich and mellow, with the slight drawbacks of a feeble and awfully flat third octave, elicited with much difficulty and uncertainty; a wretched back-fingered C natural, improved, by the substitution of an awkward cross-jingering; the absence of any means of producing a passable F natural; and lastly, an unequal and imperfect diatonic scale. There were no "sliding heads" in those days; perhaps some heels were all the steadier in consequence.

the time of the great masters the flute was imply an orchestral appendage: they availed aemselves of its beauties and eschewed its dects. Even as late as 1823 Kuhlau was almost nknown, and the productions of other writers ere insufficient to give the instrument any lassical status. As I write, the notes of just ach a flute steal plaintively through the still vening air; I know the lautist, and can guess his whereabouts: he is playing Charming Nelly Gray,' not without taste, and is seated on a felled tree on the green near the village forge. His rude melody has charmed into a temorary lull the noisy mirth f his companions, who, ike himself, are out for a "Lounge before retiring to rest after the day's labour.

The power was, therefore, really obtained from the atmospheric pressure, and the vacuum produced by condensing the steam. Although the credit of the construction of this kind of engine belongs to Newcomen chiefly, and in some degree to Cawley, yet the honour of the great discovery of producing power by the condensation of steam undoubtedly belongs to Savery. In fact, his claim to this great invention was acknowledged by both Newcomen and Cawley. Smeaton and Brindley were also among the pioneers of low pressure. At length the illustrious Watt did all that could be done in this direction, and attention began to be turned to the advantages of high pressure steam; though not till low pressure had been carried to such preposterous lengths, that boilers made partly of wood and lead were used; nay, even boilers built of masonry were proposed if not actually made. Many profound mathematicians investigated the theory of heat and expansions; and, as the advantages of using steam at high pressures became more and more manifest, many able practical men took the matter in hand. Amongst these may be mentioned Woolf, Trevithick, and Perkins, in England, and Oliver Evans in America.

flute was all you affirm it to be," growls some His acquaintance with very high pressure steam
sage, "why not let well alone?" What a mercy is further shown by his experiments with cannon,
if we could but do that! He is surely the best of which he closed up with a certain quantity of
all artists who knows when and where to leave water inside, and then burst by the action of fire.
his work alone. In the matter of the eight-keyed Following the Marquis of Worcester and Captain
flute all was not right, hence arose the revolution Savery, we find Newcomen and Cawley, of Dart-
of Boehm.
mouth, labouring at the production of the
And now to those who feel the need of, and arrangement commonly known as Newcomen's
will kindly accept them, the promised hints are engine. This was emphatically a low pressure
offered. Early morning is the best time for engine; in fact, rather an atmospheric than a
study; the head is then clear, and the body steam engine. The steam used in such an engine
refreshed before breakfast, if possible-flute did not exceed 161b. above a vacuum, the tem-
practice is not pleasant or profitable after meals. perature being 216° Fahr.
One hour at least should be devoted to it at a
time. Standing is the best attitude; the music
being placed high enough to be seen well without
bending the neck or stooping the shoulders. The
flute speaks at the embouchure; and if it be
borne in mind that the functions of the chest
and windpipe are the same in singing and flute-
playing the importance of attitudes in connection
with tone, tune, and expression, will be self-
evident, to say nothing of the charm of an easy
graceful carriage. The flute should be held at
nearly a right angle with the body, in such a
manner that the thumb and fingers of the left
hand and the fingers of the right may be perfectly
free. An unsightly contrivance, called a "crutch,"
is provided to help those who will not help them-
selves. It may be accomplished as follows:-
Place the flute just above the knuckle-joint of
the first finger of the left hand, about lin. from
the first or B hole, and press the instrument
gently against the under lip with that part of
the left hand and the thumb of the right hand,
which latter must be placed against the side of
the flute, about an inch from the F natural key.
On no account ought the thumb to be placed
under the flute. Inattention to this most im-
portant point has, as Rockstro remarks, been
the bane of many who might otherwise have
become creditable executants. The upper lip
should be projected a little over the under lip,
which latter should about half cover the embou-
chure; but this differs in flutes, as the "stop,"
long or short, does in various violins: a little
experience will soon determine the exact orifice
to be left uncovered. The breath should next be
gently forced downwards in a smooth and even
stream. All hard blowing must be carefully
shunned, as any excess of wind above that which
actually produces the voice of the flute occasions
that insufferable hissing noise which has dis-
figured sometimes the performances of fine players.
Rockstro says "in the production of a good em-
bouchure the form of the aperture between the
lips should resemble a barley-corn in size and
shape," and he recommends those who would
cultivate a full rich tone to practise before a
looking-glass-and the advice is excellent. All
undue pressure upon the holes or keys must be
avoided; it gives rise to stiff crampy fingers;
imparts an unsightly appearance to the hand,
and is quite ruinous to execution. It should be
the constant endeavour of the student to cultivate As the Waggon boilers required many stays to
an easy unconstrained action of the fingers. keep them from "going out of shape," some
The next article will embrace the period of boilers were made completely spherical. These
the great flute reformation.

Such was the flute that Battracted the attention of the illustrious Charles Nicholson; he perceived that locked up in this melodious piece of imperfection lay the powers and capabilities of a valuable solo and concert instrument to draw forth and develop them was his study and his eventual success. Perchance these lines may be read by some who can remember the enchanting and novel effects he produced upon his improved eight-keyed flute-effects even now unrivalled and perhaps unattainable. He made his debut in London about 1820, with that form of flute usually called "the concert-flute," to distinguish it from the old German flute. It was bored on a new and better principle, and its holes were much enlarged, and graduated with greater exactness, though still on an unequal scale. With this flute, so greatly improved in tone and tune, and extended in compass, Charles Nicholson presented himself before the public, now fifty years ago. It is true he only introduced a very old friend, but so changed in voice and appearance, and handled with such consummate skill, that it was practically new, and this was one cause of his immense popularity. The flute was Nicholson's adopted child, and he taught it to use its fine voice. He charmed and delighted his audiences with his instrument-exquisite playing I. STATIONARY. astonishing them with its brilliant and dashing effects THE first steam boiler of which any reliable account exists, was patented by Captain and marvellous power of Thomas Savery in 1698, and it was unquestionexecution; the flute, in fact, ably a high pressure one. This is abundantly became the rage in society, proved by the fact that Savery raised water 80ft. and his well-earned reputahigh by the direct pressure of steam; for which tion was only to be equalled purpose a pressure of 35lb. per square inch would by the extent of his teachbe required. He also speaks of raising water in ing. His flute had a place the same way "500ft. or 1000ft. high "could he in every well-bred familyfind boilers strong enough to withstand so great a much the same as that ocpressure. Although this statement, on his part, cupied by the modern pianoforte-and the pleasure cannot be taken as evidence of his contemplation of no drawing-room party was complete without its of an increase of pressure up to the precise point sweet vocality. As the flute was discovered to indicated-430lb., yet it shows that he was well be capable of new and increased effects, music aware that very much higher pressures than he came into existence to embody them; thus it was using could be attained. The Marquis of grew to be the charm, the never-failing source of Worcester, in a manuscript written in 1655-which enjoyment in the domestic circle, and the orna- is now in the British Museum-speaks of having ment of the concert-room. I give a drawing of a forced water to a height of 40ft. "like a constant very beautiful "Nicholson," by Messrs. Rudall & fountain-stream." If his meaning is, that he Rose; it is not a recent one, as it bears the old raised water to that height in a pipe, we must address (Piazza, Covent Garden), but for tune, conclude that he used steam approaching 201b.; tone, and finish, it is not to be surpassed by any but if his words be taken to express forcing water flute of its kind. The sketch has been made with in a jet, and the phrase "like a constant founcareful reference to proportion, as I shall have to tain-stream" seems to bear such a meaning, a revert to its structure hereafter. "Then if this pressure considerably higher would be indicated.

TH

HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS.

At the outset, the advocates of high pressure had many disadvantages to contend against in the prejudices and ignorance of the time, and still more in the danger arising from the use of so untrustworthy a material as cast iron in the construction of their boilers. Many of these boilers burst; and, from their extreme brittleness, they very much resembled "infernal machines," scattering death and destruction all round. Very many boilers were made of copper, but finally copper boilers were mostly displaced by wrought iron ones: though even now, we believe, many copper, and even some cast-iron boilers, are at work. The first wrought iron boilers which were made were the Waggon boilers with plain sides and arched top, Fig. 6. These boilers were neither suited to generate steam economically nor to withstand much pressure. The next step was to curve the sides inwards (see Fig. 7), thus improving the economy of the boiler to some extent. We find this form of boiler speedily further improved by rounding the ends (see Fig. 8), and finally the bottom (see Fig. 9). So many accidents occurred with these boilers that it was evident further safety must be sought.

spherical boilers gave the full tensile strength of the metal, except inasmuch as they were out of a true sphere by reason of the lap-joints. They were, however, deficient in heating surface, and very subject to burning through at the bottom by the collection of mud and scurf. Improvement was therefore sought by making the bottom considerably flatter than the spherical form.

The desire for heating surface caused the alteration into the well-known Haystack or Balloon boiler (see Figs. 10 and 11). Very great numbers of these boilers were used, particularly in Staffordshire and the district, many being as much as 20ft. in diameter. From their inherent weakness and great size they were terrible "magazines of death." Such great numbers having been used, explosions amongst this class have been very numerous. Owing to this cause, and also to their containing so large a volume of steam and water, a greater amount of destruction of life and property is chargeable to them than to any other form of boiler. A very considerable advance was made by the construction of the Cylindrical boiler (see Fig. 12). These were first made with straight seams and flat ends, but were soon improved by making the seams of rivets break joint, and by the addition of hemispherical ends, as in Fig. 13.

These boilers, however, are very objectionable. They suffer a great strain through the unequal expansion of the top and bottom. They have been made even as long as 100ft. At such an extreme length this inequality of expansion would