be very considerable-though to some extent dependent on the kind of iron used in the boiler as well as in the temperature-and often explosions thus ensue from the "breaking of the back" of the boiler. To keep the diameter of these boilers within bounds, the French have largely employed the compound form known as the Elephant boiler (Fig. 14). A boiler slightly differing from this in detail, but on the same principle, bears the name of the Retort boiler, Fig. 15. The next improvement aimed at economy, and gave us the Cornish boiler, Fig. 16. To obviate the weakness of the larger flued boilers of this class, Mr. Fairbairn introduced the Double-flued boiler, Fig. 17, about twenty-five years ago. HIGH PRESSURE BOILERS. These boilers are very safe, and in somewhat extensive use, though by no means to the extent they merit. Considerable numbers of Butterley boilers have been constructed (see Fig. 18), but although they are economical, they are very weak against pressure, and therefore proportionately dangerous. Many minor varieties of boilers might be mentioned. One class of boiler-from its dreadfully destructive nature-claims attention, namely the class used in ironworks. These boilers, surrounded by brickwork, and exposed to the fierce flames from the puddling furnaces, would be sufficiently destructive in any ordinary situation; but, placed as they are, in the very midst of a number of men, amongst whom, when they explode, they scatter a death-dealing shower of bricks, iron, and water, with the frequent addition of some of the hot iron from the furnaces, the carnage produced is often frightful. The Multi-flued boiler (see Figs. 19 and 20). demands but little notice, as it has not been found satisfactory in practice, since its economy in fuel is more than counterbalanced by its being troublesome to clean. The Multi-tubular boiler is still more economical in fuel, but also still more difficult of access for cleaning. It is also liable to leak at the bottom, and from those two causes is wanting in durability. It is particularly unsuited to foul feed-water. Amongst the improvements made in boilers of late years Adamson's th-dealing the frequ om the f ghtful. Figs. 19 it has not ince its e nced by its -tubular b t also still It is also b hose two ca particularly gst the imp ears Adam FIG. 1. Blankley's Compound Selenite Stage, giving 28 changes of tint and colour. boilers are also least likely to adopt so beautiful inch, the very great superiority of such a material to iron, only capable of bearing 20 to 22 tons, needs no lengthened comments. The use of steel for boilers has been much restricted by the general impression that the steel must be drilled and not punched. That drilling is, per se, better than punching we feel convinced, but is it not just as superior for iron as steel, if the latter be afterwards annealed? flanged joints in internal flues, and Galloway's use. With regard to punching steel plates, we have before us the results of a very careful set of experiments carried out by the Bolton Iron and Steel Company, and, from their important bearing on the question of increased safety with high pressure boilers, we give the tabulated results. Six pieces 23in. long by 7in. broad and 5-16in. thick, were cut from the one steel plate. Three of these were prepared by punching, and three by drilling, with gin. holes, 1in. from centre to centre, suited for single and double riveting. In a strapping machine these were then cut to the forms shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. As regards the future of steam boilers, we may means If cylindrical boilers are to be used at high pressures, the bodies and flues ought to have the longitudinal joints welded, and each length rolled to a truly circular shape, The transverse joints ought all to be double butt joints, and the plates thick edged, on Alton's plan. As regards rolling a tube, why should not complete bodies and flues be rolled at once? It is only a question of size of machinery and careful design. The demand for such boilers could not fail to be large. weight. The results are given in Table I.:They were tested in a lever machine by dead. Num- TABLE I.* Breaking Weight Weight weight per sq. in. per sq. in. on Lever. of section of section drilling. punching. ස Tons cwts 5 0.5437 19 35.32 1 P. 26.690 be seen that there is a difference of 11.742 tons in favour of the annealed plates, equal to 55-66 per cent. It is further well worthy of notice that the annealed plates are very much more reliable, as they show a difference of only 5-416 tons between the two extremes, while the unannealed vary as much as 9-372 tons. TABLE II.* more efficient legislation. Let us hope also that A further improvement required is the entire per square in. Tons. 19.89 26.369 24.460 Anneal- Unan- 23 781 We want a competent tribunal to inquire into organized food, either animal or vegetable. Cer animals require animal food, others can live with out that; but some can maintain life without a least food derived from the vegetable kingdom Following down the scale of organization, we fol that vegetable life and growth require the prese of matter arranged at least into binary compounds. Vegetable tissues are made up of carbon, hydroge oxygen, and nitrogen, but, so far as known, tow elements are always obtained by plants from matt organized or arranged in compounds such as cr bonic acid, ammonia, &c.*. These compounds may be, and at present are, in part derived from animal kingdom, though not necessarily so, for the result from the breaking down of vegetable matte and may be naturally produced by union of the elements. Although the animal kingdom cannot be min tained without vegetable food, the vegetable ki dom may be without animal food; and althos vegetable life and growth cannot be maintai without matter arranged at least into binary pounds, these compounds which serve as food plant-life can be formed and maintained with the aid of animal or vegetable matter. The a kingdom is then essentially primarily supplied food from the vegetable kingdom, and this, in from binary and higher compounds. The com compounds, chemistry teaches us, are formed union of simpler ones, and the simplest by union of elementary atoms. These seem to be universal laws, to which are no known exceptions. NOTE. The annealed portions are shown in antique | Blankley brought before the notice of the Fellows a proper form their constituent elements. If type. It is advisable in making steel boilers to use double butt joints and double riveting, as otherwise the rivets will sheer with far less than the breaking strain of the plate; unless, indeed, the rivets used be so large as to gain strength to the detriment of the plate. The proportions given by Mr. Henry Sharpe, of Bolton, are for 5-16in. plates, diameter of rivets, 9-16in., pitch, 1gin., double riveting; material of rivets, mild steel. With these proportions two tests gave the following excellent results, with plates taken at random from a large quantity of steel boiler plates which were being rolled to order by the Bolton Company (a), drilled plate 42-9 tons, and (b) punched ditto, 39-11 tons per square inch of net sectional area. Mr. Sharp further experimented as follows: of the Royal Microscopical Society, two forms of Fig. 1 consists of a small brass stage, 34in. Food is essential to the growth of all organi Growth being an increase of the elements of wi a body is composed, in certain definite proporti and having the arrangement proper to the grow body, it is in fact a continuation of the process organization, and the food required for growth ma at least be required for the first organization creation; for the food of all organisms contains crystal be placed on the solution from which it was formed, it will, under proper conditions, grow. One condition to its growth is the supply of its proper food, which consists of the same elements, having the same arrangement as required for its first fa mation. The seed of a plant exposed to moisture absorbs water, and sap or food is formed from the material stored up in the seed which had been separated from the watery portion of the sap contained in the parent plant; when its supply of matter, which by the addition of water serves as food, is exhausted, more is supplied from the surrounding air and soil. Like the crystal, so long as its proper food is not furnished, the germ of the seed remains stationary; and when again, under through the action of the organizing forces proper conditions, supplied with constituent matte nature, it grows. Animal tissues grow by mean supply of blood, the composition of which d in different kinds of animals, but is essentially same solution as the blood of the parent from the germs or eggs of each were formed. In these cases it is not necessary that the solution a but that must be present. A punch of 11-16in. was used; first, in the ordinary way, with a bed in. bare, producing the hole shown in Fig. 4; then a bed, fin. in diameter was used, giving the result shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 2 represents the compound stage, which The plates were dressed to the form shown in consists of a brass stage of similar dimensions to the food should contain only the constituent mat the one just described; and, in addition to the brass slide, has a revolving diaphragm with three selenites, each made to rotate, and a clear aperture, so that the object may be viewed with a single film if desired. In this stage each selenite is much larger than those in the small one, and is marked in quarters, so that the colours obtained may be registered and turned to at any time. Fig. 6. When tested, which was done without an nealing, the taper-holed plates gave an average of 32-527 tons per square inch of net sectional area; the plates with straight holes, 26-004 tons. These taper holes must offer advantages to riveting up. It is certain that the desire for economy will lead to the more extensive adoption of high pressures, heated feed-water, and the super-heating of steam. As regards the heating of feed-water, we may notice "Green's Economizer" as a very efficient apparatus. Its chief peculiarity, as is well known, consists in the scrapers-which are very slowly moved up and down by simple gearing It is, moreover, important to notice that this stituent matter must be to a certain extent p viously organized. This may, perhaps, be bet understood if we notice first the formation of crystal, which may be considered as illustrating formation of all organic germs. Crystals form solutions having the organization proper in crystal; the solution must not only contain a the crystalline compound. For instance, a se elements of which the crystal is composed, but must be arranged in molecules, correspondin may contain soda, chlorhydric and sulphuric and crystals of chloride of sodium will not because the constituent elements, although are not combined or arranged with the prop nite relation to each other. Crystals of su soda will form from such solution, un per conditions, because its elements are bined. The positive axis of each selenite in the dia-to clear off the soot from the pipes through phragm is marked coincident with those in the which the feed is passed. By this clearance the slide. By working each film as thus described, pipes are kept efficient in absorbing heat. Very considerable saving of fuel has been effected by twenty-eight tints and colours will be obtained, the use of this apparatus. Waters's heater is ex-be observed that the whole of the changes are and can be recorded for further reference. It will ceedingly suitable for non-condensing engines. obtained without moving the stage or taking the formed from the sap, which is the pla It possesses the advantage of thoroughly heating object out of the field or focus, thus saving much the water to the boiling point, and also of causing time and trouble. They are made by Mr. Swift, the deposit of its earthy matters as mud in the heater. With the increase of pressure, the fre- 128, City-road, London, who is preparing a comquency and destructiveness of boiler explosions plete list of changes that can be effected by them. will increase unless efficient means be taken to combat the dangers spoken of. ORGANIC LIFE. BY H. B. BAKER, M.D., of Wenona, Mich., U.S. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE. Any one who will read the reports of any of the very excellent boiler associations will be convinced that, if boilers were all well made to begin with, as regards workmanship, design, and THE ORDER OF CREATION OF LIVING BEINGS, FROM material, well mounted with efficient duplicate safety-valves (locked), water-gauges, alarums, steam-gauges, and fusible-plugs, and finally, properly inspected, explosions would be few and far between. It is to be hoped that the Bill on this subject, introduced by the hon. member for Dudley, may either become law or lead to even The pollen and seeds as well as buds of pe selected from the surrounidng earth and ar matter organized in the manner peculiar to plant; it is, in fact, the germ of the plant in soluta and seeds may in a manner be said to crystal from it. The spermatic fluid and eggs of anima are formed and perfected in an analogous man by compound molecules, separated or secreted f the highly organized animal fluids. The formati of the fluids from which these crystals, seeds, eggs are formed, requires the presence of the fo proper to each, and it must consist of their const tuent matter properly arranged. From what is known concerning the laws which growth, the essential nature and constitution of food, the formation of the germs of organisms and the formation of chemical compounds, justified in concluding that animal life is always wo seem BEGINNING with takes food, which is then parent fre e formed st the wat constitut notice thr 5. perlaga! the formo red as ins 5. Crystals zatka pre not only is compee les, corres or instalat sodium with the F Crystals of solution, dements ar 1 as buds of ich is the g earth an ner pect e said to: n analogs crystals presence isist of 1. ning the ite ife by fo and a is of cr imponis imal life 119 Article srd of Pr its of Life necessarily preceded by vegetable life; that this is always necessarily preceded by a certain amount of arrangement of elements into binary and more complex compounds; that the complex compounds are aniversally formed from simpler ones, and the simplest by union of the elementary atoms. We can thus trace back the order of creation, or evolution of living beings, to the chemical elements. THE BEGINNING OF LIFE. ITS LOWEST FORM, AND THE SIMPLEST ORGANISMS. parts, and again show that the lowest living things are organisms. tain extent, result from the forces acting upon it. As the atoms of an elementary body are alike, and, subjected to the same force, vibrate alike, and the This higher view is furnished us through a knowatoms of different elements are unlike, and vibrate ledge of chemistry, which teaches that there is differently, few or many changes will be produced a mutual dependence of parts which extends to the by a given force, according as it acts upon a body molecules, and even to the ultimate atoms of all deconsisting of one or many different elements. Afinitely combined matter. A definitely chemical given force should therefore produce the least num compound consists of definite proportions of matter ber and variety of changes by combination or re- definitely arranged. For instance, albumen is comarrangement, and by mutual reactions of consti- posed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, tuent matter and force, will be least where atoms in certain proportions, and arranged in a certain of only one element are present. manner: if either the proportion or the arrangement be destroyed, the matter no longer constitutes albumen. The several elements of which it is composed may be considered as organs performing essential functions, their mutual dependence being absolute; for, if one be removed, the compound is destroyed. Probably the presence of each atom of each element is essential to the existence of the compound, so that a molecule of albumen may be considered an organism, although not in accordance with the idea heretofore entertained. The same may be said of a molecule of water or of any other such group of atoms definitely arranged. Albumen was selected as an example, because the lowest living things revealed by the microscope cannot, by the aid of the highest magnifying power, be distinguished from mere minute particles of albumen. Motions result from force, and the greatest variety of motion will be produced by forces acting upon the greatest number and variety of elements. Motion of the simplest character results from the action of force upon homogeneous matter. Reproduction consists, essentially, in the generation of new bodies, and communicating to them the properties characterizing the parent, as regards both matter and its arrangement. The reproductive process should be simplest where the body to be reproduced is simplest, and we have seen that this must be the case when it consists of the least organizable quantity of one kind of matter, viz., of two atoms of one chemical element. In studying the creation of living organisms, if we start with any of the higher animals, and trace back the life of an individual, we find it to begin in an organized form of matter, an egg. But the egg is a complex substance, and, although some of the conditions to its formation and development into a living being are well understood, studied by itself it is difficult to understand the creation, beginning, or source, of its vital force; and, if we understand from whence the force is derived, it is still difficult to see what gives direction. If we direct our attention to the vegetable seed, we meet with the same difficulties. In order that we may understand the creation of the higher organisms, it may be well to search out the lowest, and begin the study of life in its simplest form; and, that we may be able to recognize the object of our search, we should have a reasonably perfect definition of the word life, and an idea of the characteristics of living beings. A complete and perfect definition is difficult, and is not assumed to be here given; but it will be sufficient for our present purpose to say that, from the word life, we receive an impression of certain phenomena attendant upon changes which occur in organized bodies as results of their experiences of force. This definition is perhaps incomplete, but, in fact, any attempt at a perfect definition must necessarily be unsatisfactory so long as only the higher forms of life are considered. We cannot properly define a thing until the whole of it be some what understood. However, if we bear in mind our imperfect definition, and keep in sight the higher kinds of life which we do understand, we can search for the lowest, which we may not, and when the whole has been considered, a definition may be more satisfactory. Let us, then analyze the characteristics of the higher living beings from which we have received our first ideas of life, and learn their essential nature. By reducing these characteristics to their lowest terms, we ought to deduce an ideal lowest form of life. The prominent phenomena which characterize living beings are-1. Organization; 2. Definite Chemical Composition; 3. Definite Form; 4. Growth; 5. Continual Change; 6. Motion; 7. Reproductive Power. Our idea of life being mainly formed from our knowledge of these characteristics, the ideal lowest form should have them in the simplest degree. Commencing the search by considering them singly, we notice first that living bodies are organized. If we now sum up these several least require ments, we find that, from this analysis of the characteristics of living organisms, it appears that, reduced to their lowest terms, they must consist of two atoms of a chemical element arranged with the simplest definite relation to each other. This should be the beginning of the lowest form of life, and we also found this to be the lowest ideal organism. It is represented by the ultimate molecule, which may be the nucleus or beginning of a crystal of a chemical element. The conclusion here reached by deduction will no doubt be at first regarded with astonishment, and without inductive proof it is not expected that this view can be received except by those already prepared by a knowledge of such proof; but the evidence which the writer has seen on the subject is such as to convince him that the same conclusion may be reached by other and more satisfactory methods of research. This method of first presenting the subject has, however, been selected because it seems to show, from a study of the somewhat imperfect idea of life, what is necessary to its perfection. Consideration of the subject from this stand-point first, may prepare some minds to study it thoroughly without the prejudice which might otherwise prevent; and, finally, because the building up of any structure is greatly facilitated by first perfecting a definite plan, so that the position and relation sustained by the component parts may be readily seen as soon as each is presented. It is believed that the generalization indicated may be made and established with great advantage to the study of biology. The plan of the creation or evolution of living organisms is thereby rendered much more simple and easy of comprehension, as may perhaps be made to appear at some future time. Whether the lowest living things can be properly called organisms, will depend upon the definition of the words organism and organ. According to the ordinary definition, an organism is a body consisting of mutually dependent parts having functions, and an organ is one of such parts. The word organ, as appears from the above quotation, has heretofore been applied only to visibly distinct parts having functions, &c., although the definition; in our standard dictionary is similar to the one given above, and has no such requirement. The standard definition will allow of its use in the extended sense that I wish, viz., to denote any mutually dependent parts of definitely-combined matter having separate functions, whether or not the part or function be capable of demonstration to the single sense of vision. It is essential to a right understanding of scientific problems, that the terms employed should have a precise meaning. If the words organ, organism, and organized, cannot appropriately be used in connection with all definitelycombined matter, and must, on account of old associations, be restricted to such compounds as have visible distinctions of parts, then it would seem to be advisable to invent new terms which shall, in a word, or as concisely as possible, embrace all such compounds, and thereby render easy this comprehensive and general view. But if this be done, the old words left as heretofore, there is then no well-marked limit or beginning of organization, for what is visible to one, under certain circumstances, may not prove so to others, and again the limit would vary with the magnifying power used. If however, the old terms (organism, &c.) be retained and thus defined, it will still be easy to distinguish between visible and invisible organs; the invisible orgaThe ideal lowest form of life and the lowest organ-nization may be denominated primary, as it undoubtism we have found to consist of "two atoms of an edly is, to vegetable and animal organization. In my elementary substance arranged with the simplest opinion, the science of biology will at present be best definite relation to each other," and we know that facilitated by thus extending and defining the there are existing in nature such combinations of words used. The important reason for wishing matter. In a previous part-"The Order of Crea- thus clearly to define and extend their meaning is tion of Living Beings "-it was pointed out that their to collect under one general view the prominent creation could be traced back to the chemical ele- phenomena attendant upon matter arranged in defiments as its starting-point. From this lowest form nite compounds. At present certain highly-complex, of life there is a constantly-ascending scale up to definite compounds are called organisms; certain human life. From this simplest organism there is others, less complex, living things, but are not cona constantly-increasing complexity of combination sidered organisms, because not having visible and organization up to the human organism. An organs; others, nearly as complex as these last, attempt will be made to show that the phenomena are attendant upon changes occurring in the simpler combinations which may be called primary organisms resemble, and are in fact similar to, those which are recognized as characteristic of living beings. We shall find how perfectly they accord with our definition of life. According to the ordinary definition, an organism is a body consisting of organs, or mutually depen dent parts having functions. The lowest organism should consist of the least number of mutually dependent parts, having functions of the simplest character. The least mutually dependent number would be two-and, as the smallest portion of matter imaginable is called an atom, nothing less than that could be conceived as having a function; and, as the functions of two precisely similar atoms would be least contrasted, and of the simplest character, the lowest organism should consist of two equal atoms organized or arranged, so that its existence as an organism would depend upon the functional activity of each, which might consist in their mutual attraction for each other. This would be the case in a molecule consisting of two atoms of a chemical element. And, as the atoms of an elementary substance are alike, their functions would be equal. We notice, next, that living bodies have a definite composition; they consist of definite proportions of certain elements definitely arranged. Arrangement implies relation, and would require, at least, the presence of two units. The simplest definite proportions would be equal, and as the least portion of matter is the atom, a definite compound reduced to its lowest terms should consist of two equal atoms arranged with the simplest definite relation to each other. Beginning the subject inductively, let us first consider organization; that being an acknowledged characteristic of at least the higher living beings, and the first one mentioned in our analysis. The word organism has heretofore, I believe, only been applied to those compounds which have visible distinctions of parts; leaving out, among those which have not such distinctions, some which were nevertheless considered living. "The lowest living As to form, we should expect to find the lowest things are not, properly speaking, organisms at all; life, having definite form, of the greatest simplicity. for they have no distinctions of parts, no traces of Complexity of form results from complex arrange- organization "-(Herbert Spencer). Before the miments of heterogeneous elements; the greatest sim-croscope revealed its world of living beings, the plicity of form will result from the simplest arrange- general idea of organisms probably included only ment of like elements. Simple definite forms are those whose organs or distinctions of parts were found in crystals of the chemical elements, gold, visible without its use; some minute moving bodies copper, iron, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, &c., which were no doubt by some considered living, although usually crystallize in simple cubes or octahedrons. their organs could not then be distinguished. AfterGrowth is an increase of the elements composing ward, with the aid of the microscope, their organs the body, in the proportion and having the arrange- were plainly seen, as were also myriads of other ment proper to it. The simplest requirement for organisms. With the microscope other minute growth would be the smallest equal proportions of moving bodies have been brought to view, and are one element with the simplest definite atomic now considered living, although their organs canarrangement. This might be the case in bodies not be distinguished. We have again reached a consisting of one element. point where a still higher vision is required to enable us to see a mutual dependence and distinction of The changes occurring in a living body to a cer The pro called organic, because heretofore only found in organisms; others still complex, are called inorganic chemical compounds. minent fact connected with all these structures is, their definite composition and definite atomie or molecular arrangement: and the certain and regular phenomena attendant upon their experience of certain conditions are believed to be in consequence of this definite composition. This broader generalization seems to me to be useful, taking in as it does all definite combinations, and distinguishing them from amorphous, non-arranged, or, according to my view, unorganized matter. If this be done, as heretofore indicated, the beginning of the simplest organization will be where the first two atoms unite with a certain or definite relation to each other, to form a definite compound. In accordance with the foregoing views, life is conceived to be manifested by all organized matter, the kind of life depending upon the character of the organization. Among scientific men, at the present time, the tendency is to look for the lowest organization and the beginning of life among the protean compounds; and protoplasm is the name given to what many now consider as the connecting link between inorganic matter and living organisms. It seems to me, however, that they are not searching deep enough; that protoplasm is about midway between amorphous matter and the highest organisms, and cannot profitably be considered as the beginning of life or of organization, although it may be, as the beginning of the two highest organic kingdoms-the |