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IN obedience to the suggestions of a number of readers, we hav
decided on appropriating a portion of our space to a condensed list
of patents as nearly as possible up to the date of our issue,
LETTERS PATENT DURING
WEEK ENDING MARCH 21st, 1870.

FAIR PLAY.-We would gladly accommodate you, but to give APPLICATIONS FOR
what you require would occupy too much space.

G. GROVER.-A short description of the " Macclesfield" veloci-
pede, appeared in No. 258, page 608, Vol. X.
ALFRED HOPPS.-See present number of the ENGLISH ME-

CHANIC.

HARRY BROTHERS.-We occasionally, to oblige a correspondent, insert a query which savours of an advertisement: that is no reason we should do it in all instances. The less it is done, we admit, the better.

THANKS. David Harcourt and Co. thank W. R. Rose, of Haddingham, Suffolk, for his unsolicited recommendation of their brake chain. Messrs. Harcourt's letter will be found on page 47.

VIBRATOR.-The roll came by book post, but not the letter with the stamps.

E. A. WITTY. A recipe for welding cast steel was given by
"Black Diamond," No. 238, page 113.

JAMES REEVE.-Consult the back vols. of the ENGLISH ME-
CHANIC, or Mr. Ede's little book on the" Management of
Steel," published by Tweedie, Strand.
METEOROLOGIST.-We reply to your query by another. How
is it that if you evaporate a strong solution of salt and
water, the salt remains?

IGNORAMUS.- Cannot say. Write the editor of the journal in
which you saw the review. One of Francis' or Fairbairn's
presses would suit you. See our advertisement pages.
ERRATUM.-In letter on " Opaque Lanterns," in No. 260, page
656, by an error in the punctuation, the meaning is ren-
dered very obscure. Thus, at line 15 it reads: "A B is
the front of the lantern C D E G, the part to be attached at
a point E, about 24in. from D. The right-hand corner is
cut off," &c.; should be, "A B is the front of the lantern,
CDEG the part to be attached. At a point E, about 2 in.
from D, the right-hand corner is cut off," &c.

W. H. P.-Instructions for re-gilding picture frames were
given by several subscribers some weeks back.
A NEW SUBSCRIBER (Cornhill).-A good list of varnishes
appeared at the commencement of last volume. Your query
about the lathe is obscurely worded.
FORWARD.-Jewellers' rouge is frequently prepared by preci-
pitating sulphate of iron with potash, well working the
yellow oxide, and calcining it uutil it acquires a scarlet
colour.

ERRATUM.-In No. 260, Query No. 2116, in second line, for
"200 falls " lead
200 galls."

SPOILED BEAUTY.-From your handwriting we think you
should have written to one of the many journals who pro-
fess to preside over the toilet. We cannot advise you.
Your complaint is either an imaginary one, or needs at
once the advice of a medical man skilled in the treatment
of skin diseases.

F. J. T.-Nothing new.

Z.-See advertisement pages.

are

POOR BILLY.-Numerous "Selections from the Poets
published by different booksellers, at all prices.
seller will guide you to a selection.
Any book-
Brass tubing for tele-
scopes of various dimensions may be found advertised in
our columns, among others by Mr. E. Tydeman, of 9, Mig-
hell-street, Brighton.

E. H. AVIS. Give the information through our columns.
J. H. RUMSEY.-Not in your neighbourhood.

E. LETHBRIDGE.-The fault is in your indistinct writing.
Your second letter does not clearly give the name of the
town you reside in.

J. W. KASEL-First question recently; the second we cannot insert.

G. W. PALMER.-Forwarded.

CASUAL OBSERVER.-Box Tunnel, we think.

A. B. C.-Ask any eagraver.

J. CROMPTON.-Send it to the watch doctor.

A YOUNG ENGINEER.-Inquire of a friend.

SHOREDITCH.-The challenge made by Mr. John Hampden, of Swindon, was accepted by Mr. Alfred Wallace, F.R.G.S.; but when it will be decided we cannot tell.

LEES.-No charge for inserting "Queries."

A WELL-WISHER.-We are somewhat surprised that you
should recommend such a thing to the ENGLISH ME-
CHANIC. It is only tottering publications that think of
holding out such baits, as offering magnificent prizes to all
their subscribers" for nothing."
weakness is either cunning or crawling.
Strength stands erect;
J. W.-Thanks. Next week. Try again.
A. G. HOULT.-Your letter came to hand.

W. RICE. You enclosed no stamps.

AN OLD SUBSCRIBER.-You cannot be, or you would have know, that the wheel question was discussed ad nauseum, a few months since.

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THE

749. W. Husband, Hayle, atmospheric stamps and hammers.
750. J. Felber, Manchester, machinery for manufacture of paper
from wood.

751. R. Winstanley and Barker. Manchester, excavating coal.
752. W. R. Pape, Newcastle-on-Tyne, fire-arms.
753. H. Manton and J. H Mole. Bir ningham, swivels.

754. G. Brown, Glasgow, velocipedes,

755. W. H. Samuel, Liverpool, friction lights.

756. R S. Prowse, Liverpool, hand trucks.

757. F. Pattison, blackening (for foundry purposes).
758. J. C. McLagan, London, sewing machines.

759. J. C. Atkin, Deeley, and Newbery, of Sheffield, furnaces.
760, C. Stockbridge, Bishop's Stortford, collars and saddles for
horses.

761. J.C. Ramsden, Bradford, looms.

762. J H. Johnson. 47, Lincoln's-Inn fields, apparatus for go-
verning speed of motive power engines.-A communication.
763. P. C. Nicholas de Ferrari. Paris, hygienic and mechanical hat
764. E. Dugdale and J. Dugdale, Blackburn, sizing machines.
765. G. Jaite, Berlin, a telegraphical apparatus "Jaite."
upright pianoforte actions.
766. G. H. H. Brockbank, Camden Town, improvements in

767. P. W. Spencer. Raygill, York, gentleman, limekilns.
768. J. Beckett and R. Levers, Wandsworth, an improved buckle.
769. W. E. Newton, 66, Chancery lane, improvements in malt-
kilns.-A communication

770. W. D. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, improvements in gun
carriages.
771. R. Lakin, of Messrs. Curtis, Parr, and Madeley, Manchester,
improvements in mules.

772. R. Tonge, Minchester, improvements in looms:
773. W. C. Mitchell, Belfast, certain improvements in books,
774. W. Morgan, 4, John's-place, Mitcham, preservation of life
from fire.

775. G. Holdsworth, Halifax, producing drawings or designs upon
squares or ruled design paper, for manufacturing purposes.
776. W. Rainforth. Brayford Head, Lincoln, rotary corn screens.
777. P. Murray engineer. Quebec, differential pulley blocks,
778. H. W. Hammond, Manchester, "helical" revolver.-A com-
munication.

779. J. C. Mewburn, 172. Fleet-street, apparatus for raising and
forcing fluids, and for cleaning suction strainers by steam.-A com-
munication.

780. J. T. Walker, Albany, U.S., making horseshoes,

781. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, forming
trenches or ditches.-A communication.

waggons.
782. J. Homan, 80, Coal Exchange, London, railway and other
783. J. Watkins, Birmingham, improvements in dies for metallic
tubes.

784. J. H. Johnson, 47, Lincoln's Inn-fields, construction of
roads. A communication.

785. F. Virtue, Liverpool Oil Mills, Liverpool, hydraulic presses.
786. J. Moulton. Boston, U.S., elastic rolls for clothes wringers
787. D. Spill, Hackney, compounds containing xyloidine.
788. G. Buck, 28. Lawrence-lane, fire-lighters.

789. T. Williams, 1, Brunswick-street, Hackney-road, sewing

machines.

790. J. Pinchbeck, 27, Leadenhall-street, London, water tube boilers.

791. G. De Lavigne, Paris, applying cork for protection from caloric.

792. W. E. Jedge, 11, Wellington-street, Strand, damping woven
fabrics.

793. F. A. Barrow, Glasgow, recovering reagents from oil.
794. J. Walker, Glasgow, improvements in bottles.

795, E. R. Southby, Shotts, Lanark, distilling crude mineral oils.
zincographic, and other printing presses.-A communication,
796. E. T. Hughes, 123, Chancery-lane, London, lithographic,
797. A. M. Clark, 53, Chancery-lane, moulds used in stereotyping.
-A communication,

798. J. Davis and W. N. Davis, Hemel Hempstead, two furrow
ploughs.

799. C. H. Rost, Dresden, washable papers.

800, T. J. Smith, Robertson, Brooman, and Company, 166, Fleetstreet, apparatus for holding stamps for office and general uses.A communication.

801. S. Perkins, Gorton, improvements in steam boilers,

80%. C. Janicot, Paris, producing photographic pictures on fabrics.
803. R. Girdwood, Edinburgh, dressing stone.

804. W. West, Leeds, boilers and apparatus for generating steam
805. C. Young. Hampstead, machinery for sawing wood.
806. J. H. Johnson, 47, Lincoln's Inn-fields, crimping machines
-A communication.

807. . White, 68. Queen-street, Cheapside, an improved propeller.
-A communication.

for an invention of limekilna.-A communication.
808. H. E. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, Middlesex, Civil Engineer,

809 J. M. Napier, York-road, Lambeth, apparatus for running
or pouring metals.

810. Sir W. Fairbairn, Manchester, steam boilers.
811. W. Woofe, Bedford, apparatus for guiding ploughs.
812. W. Friar, Woolwich, domestic fire-escape.
813. W. Austin, Hatton Garden, boxes and cases.

814. W. Guest, Great Saffron-hill, Farringdon-road, ropes, co rds
and wire ropes.

815. A M Strathern, Coatbridge, apparatus for getting minerals, and for compressing air.

816. T. Keely. Nottingham, looped fabrics.

817. S. Norris, Paris, wood paving.

818. J. Hockey, 187, Carlton-road, Kilburn, ventilating lights.

819. G. W. Fox, Manchester, medicinal oils.

820. W. A. Lyttle, Hammersmith, wheels,

821. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, machinery for
sewing boots and shoes.-A communication.

822. B. Wade, Copley, signals and brakes for railways.
823. J. S. Stocks, B. Stocks, and S. Hutchinson, of Leeds, scouring
and shaving hides.

824. G. Weedon, Gracechurch-street, knife-cleaning machines.
825. G. Kent, 199, High Holborn, carving fork and knife shar-

pener.

VERBUM EST VERBUM, takes us to task for alluding to
"Earth Closets," and Ketchup made from Horses'
Liver," in our pages Our opinion is that such things
affect the health of the community, and ought to be talked
about; and since they have been talked about and inquired doors of railway carriages.
into, the health of the public has improved. It is known
to many that "ketchup" is made from horses' liver, and
the sooner all know it the better. Is not "Verbum est
Verbum more nice than wise?

E. G. says, "I am heartily glad to welcome beck the 'Har-
monious Blacksmith.' May his anvil ring loud and long!"
W.B. We are not bound to answer every query. The obli-
gation between the proprietor and reader is, or should
be, mutual.

W. WEBBER says, "What an exquisitely happy illustration, that about the beautiful little girl selling bricks and the Temple of Knowledge! I will endeavour to send you a brick now and then." Thanks.

EARLY RISER-Had you consulted the last index, you might have saved yourself the labour of writing.

THE ENGLISH MECHANIC LIFE-BOAT
FUND
Subscriptions to be forwarded to the EDITOR, at 31, Tavis-
tock-street, Covent-garden, W.C.

Amount previously acknowledged

Marine

Brightonian...

W. H.

W. H. E., Bath

G. Read

Caution

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826. C. J. H. Warden, Aldridge-road-villas, Bayswater, securing 827. R. F. Fairlie, Victoria Chambers, Westminster, wheels for rail or tramway engines.

828. J. Stirling, Kilmarnock, railway brakes.

829. J. Ferris. Leyton, improved lubricating apparatus.
830, G. Barker and J. McFarlane, Glasgow, copying letters.
831. P. M. Walker, Ardrossan, shoeing horses.

832. J. Millar, Dalry, motors for obtaining and transmitting

motive power.

833. S. Brooke, Brighouse, carding engines,

834. A. V. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, manufacturing barrels.A communication.

835. J. Ascough, Handsworth, candles.

836. G. Skey, Tamworth, gas purifiers and scrubbers.

837. W. R. Lake, Southampton buildings, London, wheels for
railway engines-A communication.

838. A. Barlow, Strand, jacquard mechanism for weaving.
839. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, micrometic
steelyard,

PATENTS BEING PROCEEDED WITH

3216. P. and A. Walker, an improved gas meter.
8223. R. Jones, a paper holder.

3231. A. Bohlken, terriers or ground augers.

3232. E. Thomas, safety lamps.

3. W. Donbavand, balances,

3251. G. Simpson, withdrawing beverages from casks,

3274. W. E. Gedge, a new composition for preserving metal.-A communication.

£161 18 7

3261. B. Shaw, cutting soap.

1 6

1 0

2 6

3271. H. Minns, letter pillar posts.

3263. A. C. Brakell, obtaining and applying motive power.
3265, O. Rose, pistons,

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828. W. Richardson, valves.

164 6 1

3275, W. E. Gedge, machino for cutting wood and metala.
3231. T. A. Dillon, safety lamp.

3283. H. H. Grierson, cutting or dressing stone.

3292, C. D. Abel, refining and desilvering lead.-A communication.

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3317. E. Bazin, spinning looms.

3321. G. Baron d'Adelsward, blast furnaces.

3344. C. D. Abel, utilising streams, springs, lakes, ponds, surface waters as motive power.

3399. M. Henry, moving railway carriages and other heavy bodie from place to place.

3411. T. Brown, boring rocks.-A communication.

3127, J. Brunton, railway signals.

3491. J. H. Johnson, spring mattresses.-A communication.

3518, W. R. Lake, harness for draught animals.

3521. J. L. Booth, rails for railroads,

3552. A. M. Clark, ornamenting figured muslin and gauze fabrics

A communication.

3556. H. Byk, refining and bloaching paraffine.

3582, W. E. Newton, folding printed sheets.

3697. W. R. Lake, manufacture of steel bars.-A communies tion. 3718. C. H. Roeckner, disintegrating wood.

3725. A, M. Clark, curtains and blinds.

58. R. Morris treating shoddy to obtain ammonia.

116. T. Restell, breech-loading arms and cartridges.
151. T. Whitehead, wool combing and drawing machinery.

229. G. A. Buchholz, manufacturing semolina and flour."
237. C. Lungley construction of ships or vessels.
254. R. Haworth looms for weaving.

281. C. Mahler, improved windmill."

371. A. B. Childs, cleaning scouring, and decorticating wheat.
42.. J. Botterill, consuming smoke and economising fuel.
487. C. Bartholomew, getting coal.

492. E. Hill. engine turning or engraving.

521. G. H. Ellis, washing, wringing, and mangling.
543. A. Dickson and T. Law, pressed leather

$56. W. B. Leachman, hydraulic apparatus for raising water.
568. P. J. Livesley, manufacture of hair cloth.

576. R. J. Westley, billiard and other tables.

592. A. V. Newton, sewing machines.

600. B. G. George, ornamental and other designs and devices
602. W. and R. Mushet, improvements in casting metals,
621. G. H. Ellis, ladders.

623. R. B. Boyman, propelling vessels.

665. E. Wood, and H. Boghill, potters' glazes.

683. J. Polson, treating grain.

690. C. Wyndham, bicycles.

744. W. R. Lake, apparatus for indicating a deficiency of water in steam boilers.

All persns having an interest in opposing any one of such appli cation e at liberty to leave particulars in writing of their objec tion such application at the office of the Commissioners before the 1th of April, 1870.

PATENTS SEALED.

2738 C. E. Schoeller, copying presses
2739 H. Cockey, scurfing retorts
2743 P. J. Kurtz, chaff cutters

2744 J. Jacobi, removing phosphates from ores

2752 R. R. Gibbs, improvements in pumps

2755 C. L. Light, construction of tram-rails

2757 W. R. Lake, sewing machine and other needles

2761 W. J. Turner, manufacturer of bisulphites

2780 G. A. C. Bremme, untwisting and unlaying shreads, yarns, strands, ropes

2779 R. Collis, velocipedes

2788 J. T. Gaze and J. Hymas, fire bars

2790 J. P. Turner, in buckles or fastenings

2301 F. W. Fox and E. Walker, engines and their boilers.

2818 C. D. Abel, a new green colouring matter for dyeing and printing

2824 A. V. Newton, horse-shoe nails

2860 W. Edmonson, machinery for etching

2874 G. Rose, construction of annealing pots

2916 W. E Newton, wheel for propelling ships

3242 J. Logan and W. Gardner, ornamenting textile fabrics
3133 G. Bertram, straining paper pulp

3538 C, Vavin, separating metals and magnetic substances from
other bodies

72 C. D. Abel, treatment of cast-iron for production of castings
187 F. Whitfield, improvements in locks

2'1 J. H. Johnson, applying anti-friction rollers to wheels

261 W, R. Lake, mechanism for spinning wool

279 W. R. Lake, apparatus for producing rotary motion

282 F. Claudet, treatment of cupreous ores containing silver
2771 J. M. Spence, disinfectants

2773 J. Mackenzie, weighing machines

2776 J. E. Hewett, designs on metal surfaces

2778 W. Strang, preparing warps for the loom

2795 J. Stuart, treatment of ores

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2942 A. H. Brandon, improved means of locomotion
3303 M. Sautter, improved reloading cartridge shell
3335 G. F. Cornelius, manufacture of paint and varnish
8351 T. Aitken, improvement in "washer cloth"

3394 J. Dunkerley, machinery for planking" bodies of hats,
bonnets, or other coverings for the head

3476 A. R. Henderson, apparatus for shearing or clipping animals
3524 H. H. Murdoch, forming and joining ends of pipes
3540 J. Childs, manufacture of bread and biscuits

3754 W. R. Lake, improvements in sectional steamboats
121 W. Sinton, improvements in churns

123 A. Courvoisier, improvements in double-faced watches

141 T. Peard, for adjusting and securing knobs of locks
147 H. Haines, of lead-encased tin pipes

256 A. W. G. Weeks, G. Deal, G. Lilly white, and A. O. Launders,
of hot water boilers, joints, and valves

259 E. S. Cathels, apparatus for manufacture of gas, part also ap plicable for ventilating mines, promoting combustion, and pumping, measuring, and forcing fluids

321 W. R. Lake, improvements in machines for mowing graSS

PATENT ON WHICH THE STAMP DUTY OF £50 HAS
BEEN PAID.

755 W. R. Lake, improvements in rotary engines and pumps
779 W. H. Parsons, improvements in setting boilers and safety
valves for the same

883 E. B. Bigelow, looms for weaving

768 T. Shedden, fire-arms

776 F. H. Wenham, heated air engines

789 C. Allhusen, obtaining sulphur from pyrites

797 W. McAdam and S. Schuman, protecting bottles

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818 H. Clifton, improvements in refrigerators

822 J. A. Limbert, lowering, and moving heavy bodies

837 J. Lawson, spinning flax, tow, hemp, and other fibres
915 M. P. W. Boulton, apparatus for receiving motion or energy
from fluids and for imparting it to them

755 W. R. Lake, improvements in rotary engines and pumps
842 H. Wilde, electro-magnetic and magneto-electric induction
machines

1049 W. T. Henley, machinery for the manufact ire and treat-
ment of wire

1128 W. Weild, machine for winding yarn or thread

PATENTS ON WHICH THE STAMP DUTY OF £300 HAS
BEEN PAID.

719 W. Symington, apparatus for roasting and treating coffee and
other organic substances

717 G. De Laire, improvements in the manufacture of brows colouring matters

739 A. Morel, apparatus for generating carbonic acid

S

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The English Mechanic

AND

MIRROR OF SCIENCE AND ART.
FRIDAY, APRIL 8, 1870.

ON CHEMICAL SYMBOLS.
BY GEORGE E. DAVIS.

CHAPTER I.

ON looking back to the days of the alchemists,

when the great search for the philosopher's stone was being made, among a confused heap of retorts, alembics, crucibles, and other pieces of laboratory apparatus used in early scientific research, may often be seen figured a chart, covered with mystic signs. These signs, which are seldom alluded to in modern chemistry, are, in fact, the forefathers of our present symbolic notation. Our predecessors, with a view no doubt to keep their science to themselves, invented these mystic formula, although we must allow them one point-viz., that it might have been for the purpose of abbreviation. The time for these mystic symbols has for ever gone, and the f ct of their existence seems nearly to have gone too, no one expressing a wish that they should ever return. Some of the forms are very peculiar, and are characteristic of the age from which they sprung; others are extremely simple, consisting only of straight line or circles, though members of this latter class are but very few. Each compound had its respective symbol, as well as each metal, for in those days the metals were supposed to be composed of a calx with a subtle body which was termed phlogiston.

It is curious and exceedingly interesting to read of the experiments made by the alchemists

Fe; 11 was that used for lead; 12, salammoniac,
now called 'ammonium chloride, NH,C1; 13, gold,
now Au; 14, sulphur S; 15, litharge or lead
oxide; 16, lime-water, which is a solution of
calcium hydrate, CaH2O2; 17 was used for
copper, now Cu; 18, liver of sulphur, an impure
trisulphide of potassium ;19 fusible earths; and
20 was the symbol used for that subtle and
hypothetical body, phlogiston.

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Before the time of Bergman, Kirwan, and Wenzel, the symbols used had no quantitative signification, and in fact, during their time the theory was not developed. About the year 1804, Dalton, of Manchester, gave forth to the world his celebrated atomic theory. Dalton's theory is too well known to require explanation, but it may be necessary to state that he proposed a series of

table of atomic weights, 100 parts of silver would unite with 7 of oxygen; therefore 100 would be the atomic weight of silver. These numbers, it will be seen, are inexact, but the study was then only in its infancy; 1 part of hydrogen unites with 8 of oxygen; and the quantity of silver required for those 8 parts of oxygen should be 108.

Berzelius greatly improved the formulæ of Dalton; he introduced the system of using the initial letter of the element, giving up entirely the use of the circle; Dalton's formule for carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, and water, would then become CO,,SO,, and #HO. The system was accepted as an improvement, but Berzelius considered that hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, phosphorus, arsenic, and certain of the metals could not exist as a single atom, but existed in the form of double atoms, the symbols for which he wrote with a bar, being equivalent to two single atoms of hydrogen; but he also made use of a farther abbreviation; instead of writing O to signify oxygen, he added a dot to the symbol of the element which was united with it; therefore represented water, 8`was sulphuric acid, and C signified carbonic acid. The quantitative signification of the symbols of Berzelius, with one or two exceptions, are the same as those now in use, but his formula did not exist for long; the double atoms were insurmountable obstacles, and to the chemists of the time, the simple atomic formula of Dalton was much preferable to the more complicated notions of Berzelius. Had he rejected the idea of double atoms, the system which was so much in accordance with the experiments of Gay Lussac, and the law of Ampère, might have been more generally adopted. After being in use for a period of about twenty years, it fell into disuse, atoms and double atoms being entirely superseded by equivalents. Water was written HO because

was the smallest proportion of oxygen that would enter into the composition of water by combining with 1 of hydrogen.

The reader will say, perhaps, when he knows

in former days, to prove theories, incorrect, and formula which differed greatly from that already that most of the atomic weights were fixed by

was

in use. He proposed to use circles to represent
the atoms of the elements; the atom of hydrogen
was represented by a dot in the centre, nitrogen
a bar, sulphur a cross, while the atoms of the
metals were represented by circles containing
their initial letter, and compounds were repre-
sented by combining the various atoms.

The following are some specimens of Dalton's
symbols, together with his mode of representing
the structure of compounds :-

Ө

4

Berzelius, How was it that the weights found by him, the products of a long life of study, were perverted, and the fruit of his labours used to perfect the views of others? This arose from the adoption of the double atoms, and caused other chemists to divide them or rather their numbers, and of course the numbers of the other

atoms which entered into combination with them.

the existence of substances which indeed had
no existence; for instance, sulphur
supposed to be a compound, resulting from
the combination of vitriolic acid and phlogiston.
The great Stahl made an experiment to ascertain
the quantities of each which entered into the
composition of sulphur, and he found that there
existed seven parts of acid to one of phlogiston.
Stahl and Boerhaave considered phlogiston as
a compound of elementary fire with a substance
The different systems which have engaged at-
then unknown; it was contained in the metals, in
tention, are, Dalton's system in which oxygen
charcoal, spirits of wine, and in many other
was taken as 7, and hydrogen 1; the number of
bodies it was considered the principle of in-
the oxygen atom was corrected later by Wollaston
flammability, and was identical with the alcohol
and others; Berzelius's system, iu which
of Boerhaave. Phlogiston was considered to exist
taken
oxygen was
as the standard, and
in nearly a pure state in sulphur, charcoal, and
designated 100 the corresponding number for
all inflammable bodies which burn without deposit-
hydrogen being 6-24, but as he considered it as a
ing smoke. In order to determine the quantity of 1 signifies hydrogen; 2, oxygen; 3, nitrogen; double atom the number would be 12:48; a
phlogiston which entered into the composition of 4, carbon; and 5, sulphur; and the atoms, by third system was Wollaston's, in which oxygen
sulphur, Stahl exposed liver of sulphur to a combining together, formed salts, which were
was taken as 10 and hydrogen as 1.25, existing
gentle heat, when he says the phlogiston was dis- represented as below. Dalton considered water as a double atom; carbon and sulphur on this
sipated in vapours, and the alkali united with the as composed of 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 of system would be 7.51 and 20:43 respectively.
vitriolic acid (sulphuric acid). The momenclature oxygen; sulphuric acid (as sulphur trioxide was Some even proposed that oxygen should be re-
of the age was very bad, its modification was then termed) of 3 of oxygen to 1 of sul-garded as unity making the numbers one-tenth
effected by Lavoisier who introduced the system phur, whilst carbonic acid (carbon dioxide) was of Wollaston's equivalents, but chemists settled
which is still used; but as the reader's attention composed of an atom of carbon enclosed between down to Dalton's views regarding hydrogen as
is drawn to symbols, we will not enter that sub-2 atoms of oxygen.
unity on account of its simplicity and the low
ject. The woodcut in the next column will show
numbers with which it deals; Berzelius's numbers
some of the peculiarly shaped figures, which were
used by the alchemists for the purpose of repre-
are objectionable on these grounds, that they in
volve so many figures, in calculation as well a
senting chemical compounds.
in memory

2

3

о

These are only a few from a large number of
symbols, as the alchemists were not content.
with symbols for compounds only, but they re-
presented all their apparatus by their means.
There are others which are decidedly more
peculiar than the above, but these will serve to
give the reader a notion of the ancient symbols. This was a great improvement on the existing
No. 1 in the cut is the symbol which was used system; but still it had its disadvantages; for
to express vitriolic acid, now written H2SO.; 2 instance, compounds containing a large number
is that for marine acid, now called hydrochloric of atoms in the molecule occupied a great deal of
acid or hydrogen chloride, HC1; 3 was the space when formulated, but the symbol exhibited
symbol used for fixed alkali, as potassium a definite weight, which fact alone was a decided
carbonate was then termed K,CO,; 4 is the improvement.
symbol used to signify alum, Ala (SO4)3; 5 was Dalton's symbols were employed to indicate
the symbol for antimony, Sb; 6, Silver, now what he termed an atom of an element, i.e., the
written Ag; 7 was the symbol used for quick-weight which would unite with 1 atom of hydrogen
lime, now called calcium oxide, and written weighing 1. He found that 7 parts of oxygen united
CaO 8, arsenic, As is the present symbol; 9, with the 1 of hydrogen, therefore he took 7 as
potash, now called potassium hydrate; 10, iron, the atomic weight of oxygen; aecording to his

The atomic weights, as we have seen before are, with one or two exceptions, identical with those of Berzelius, and the reader will no doubt ask why we have gone back to the views of that great chemist. Gerhardt in studying organic structure noticed that organie compounds when oxidised and entirely split up into carbon dioxide and water, yielded always two equivalents, the fact of one equivalent proceeding from an equivalent proceeding from an equivalent of an organic compound being positively unknown; his opinion was that as one equivalent of the organic body, gave, always, two equivalents of carbonic acid, it were better to regard the 12 parts of carbon which existed in the 44 parts of carbonic acid as 1 atom and not 2 equivalents, the atomic weights of carbon and oxygen would then become 12 and 16 respectively. These were the weights originally assigned to the above elements by Berzelius, but the

Ampère's law states that in equal volumes of gases under the same temperature and pressure exist an equal number of atoms, and likewise in equal volumes of the compound gases under similar circumstances exist an equal number of molecules; therefore, if 2 volumes of hydrogen unite with 1 volume of oxygen, it must be in proportion of 2 atoms to 1.

terror for him. All imaginary terrors have been
torn from them, they are known to be "trifles
light as air," the cause of their eccentric motion
is no longer a secret, and the course they must
pursue can be predicted. The genius of the
physical astronomer is as strongly marked, and
as much to be applauded for the triumphant and
conclusive investigation of cometary phenomena,
as in any other department of of astronomical
science.

formula of this latter chemist was in many cases
double that of Gerhardt, thus the formule for
alcohol was Ca H12 O2 and was regarded as a
compound of ether and water, and Berzelius's
views on the constitution of nitric acid, were,
that it contained the elements of anhydrous nitric
acid and water in distinct parts of the molecule,
thus:-N,O,+ H2O or, an electro-positive
and an electro-negative group. The opinions of
Gerhardt received much attention, and the
The true theory of cometary motion had its
modified system, which it is as well to add, is rise in Sir Isaac Newton, and the industry and
neither strictly, Berzelius's nor Gerhardt's, gene-intellect of successive astronomers have but
rally spoken of as the new notation, is now uni- confirmed his anticipations, and proved the truth
versally adopted, as it agrees with Gay Lussac's of his predictions. Hardly second to Newton for
law of volumes, Ampères law, and with Dulong and his labours in this special field of astronomy, stands
Petit's law of specific heat.
the illustrious Edmund Halley, the second Astro
nomer Royal. To Newton must be granted the
merit of a suggestive theory, to Halley the merit of
working out the detail of the system, and bringing
it to the test of observation: assuredly not the
least of the labours of Halley that has merited
the gratitude and admiration of posterity, is that
in which he undertook to compute on the hy-
pothesis of Newton, the orbits of 24 comets,
which at that date was the entire number that
had been reliably observed-a labour of which
the present Astronomer Royal has remarked that,
perhaps, no other astronomer at that time was
capable of undertaking and leading to a success-
ful issue. The results of this enormous labour
were formed into a table which was inserted in
the "Astronomia Cometica Synopsis," and ap-
peared in the volume of "Philosophical Trans-
actions" for 1705. Halley there declares that his
principal object was to give the means of deter-
mining whether any future comet moved in the
path of any contained in his list, and with the
same paper appeared his table of parabolic
motion," dedicated," as he says, "to posterity,
and which will last as long as the science of
astronomy shall exist."

Dulong and Petit found that by multiplying the specific heat of an element by its atomic weight, that a nearly constant number was obtained-namely, 65, and the atomic weights of the new system are in accordance with their experiments; thus the specific heat of mercury is 003247, and this multiplied by 200 (the atomic weight) gives 6:494, a number which nearly proaches the average 65. The specific heat of Bver is 005701, and this multiplied by the atomic weight gives a result which is rather lower than the last, 0.05701 x 1086-157. All the solid elements conform to this law, with the exception of several of the metalloids, carbon, silicium, &c. The graphite form of carbon, to conform to the law, ought to possess an atomic weight of over 30.

The following table will show at a glance the atomic weights corresponding to the different systems. The compounds introduced by Dalton are intentionally omitted, as the reader well knows that in Dalton's time, the alkalies and the alkaline earths were supposed to be elements, but Lavoisier's theory of salts was that they were composed of an acid and a metallic oxide, therefore potash and soda were long suspected, and after the isolation of potassium by Davy, the metals of the alkaline earths were soon obtained.

Only a few instances are given, the whole number of the elements occupying too much space, and those elements which are marked with an asterisk indicate Berzelius's double atoms:

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32

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Oxygen

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Nitrogen

175-16*

14

14

Carbon

75.12

12

12

Sulphur

Silver..

Ag

100

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108

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65.2

207
200
56
63.5

In our next chapter we will consider the application of formule to molecular grouping. (To be continued.)

HALLEY'S COMET.

BY "OMICRON."

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will return again in the year 1758." Continued researches and calculations confirmed Halley in his supposition, and his tone grew proportionately more decided. No means then existed for computing the effect of the planetary perturbations, but he sagaciously concluded from an examination of the general derangement from planetary perturbation, that the comet would be retarded in its next approach to perihelion, and that in consequence it would not be visible till the end of 1758 or the beginning of 1759. "Wherefore," says this illustrious astronomer, "if it should return agreeably to our prediction, impartial posterity will not refuse to acknowledge that this was first discovered by an Englishman." Nor has any ever ventured to attack the merit of the discovery, or attempt to detract from the glory that is due to Dr. Halley for the perseverance displayed in grasping a subject which involved such an immense amount of calculation. He assures us that his labours were "prodigiously " long and troublesome, but they have shed immortal honour on the enterprising calculator, and his discovery forms an epoch, and not an unimportant one, in the history of astronomy.

As the time, when the next return of the comet was expected, approached, intense interest was awakened in the minds of astronomers, although the task of computing the exact date of return does not seem to have been willingly assumed by anyone, owing to the immense amount of labour it must necessarily entail. We have seen, that at the time of Halley's prediction, mathematical analysis was not sufficiently far advanced to enable anyone to compute the effect of planetary perturbation upon the comet, and in the middle of the eighteenth century imperfect methods rendered this a task of great difficulty.

The attempt, however, was made by Clairant, and it has fully deserved the applause it has received. To anyone not versed in calculations, there may not appear any difference in computing the perturbations of a planet and those of a comet, since both derive their derangement from the true ellipse described round the sun, from the same cause, and that the solution of the problem can be effected by expressing the effect of the disturbing forces, by the variation of the arbitrary constants that enter into the formula of elliptic motion. The differential variations of each of the elements of the orbit can be determined by this means, but in order to obtain the elements of the motion of the comet in its disturbed orbit, the integration of these formulæ is necessary, and this integration involves an immense amount of difficulty and labour, of which we will say more bereafter. Euler, had not yet published his 0-583 general theory of the variation of elements, although it was written, and Lagrange's memoir on the same subject was not produced till some years afterwards, so that Clairaut was in pohis lunar theory. For the calculation theresession only of the methods he had employed in fore of the comet's perturbation, Clairaut sets out with the same differential equation for the reciprocal of the radius vector, which till within a short time has been universally adopted in lunar theories. Taking the solution (which can be expressed by elliptic terms, and terms dependunder one ing upon the disturbing force

62
51 16
17 56

Ret.

The general elements are pretty closely analogous,
but there exists a considerable difference in the
periodic time of revolution. The dates of peri-
helion passage are as follows:-August 24, 1531;
October 16, 1607; and September 4, 1682.

orbit extending through 1809 of eccentric anomaly, Clairaut was obliged to employ the method of quadratures. We do not propose to follow Clairaut throughout his elaborate investigation; the subject of cometary perturbation is fertile one, and at no very distant epoch, with the permission of the Editor, may be treated separately.

The interval between the two first is therefore 76 years 53 days, and between the second pair only 74 years 283 days, leaving a difference of fifteen months between the two consecutive times of revolution. But Halley was sufficiently acquainted with the general theory of perturbation, to know, or at least to surmise, that the influence sign of integration), he rejects everything of the planets might be such as to cause such a depending on the square of the disturbing difference. He shrewdly remarked that the in- force, and transforms the expressions into others fluence of Jupiter on Saturn was capable of in terms of the eccentric anomaly. He also varying its period 13 days, and that under certain employs, for a time, the same expression as that circumstances this variation might amount to a in his lunar theory, transformed in a similar month. Halley's memorable prediction is con- manner. Notwithstanding, for a part of the tained in the following words: "Nothing seems to contradict this my opinion, except the inequality of the periodic revolutions, which inequality is not so great neither, as that it may not be owing to physical causes; for the motion of Saturn is so disturbed by the rest of the planets, especially Jupiter, that the periodic time of that planet is uncertain for some whole days together. How much more, therefore, will a comet be subject to such like errors, which rises almost four times higher than Saturn, and whose velocity, though increased but a very little, would be sufficient to change its orbit from an elliptical to a parabolical one? This, moreover, confirms my opinion of its being the same comet that ir the year 1456, in the summer time, was seen passing retrograde, between the earth and the awaken a feeling of terror and a sense of coming sun, much after the same manner; which, though which was that I contracted an ill ess, which evil, but to the astronomer of the present day, its nobody made observations upon it, yet, from its appearance excites a sensation of triumph and of period and the manner of its transit, I cannot pride. However terrific their appearance, how- think different from those I have just now menever startling their brilliancy, they possess notioned. Hence I dare venture to foretell that it

IN N every age of the world, and in every region of it, there has been noticed among the fixed and regular constellations, a class of phenomena that has arrested the wandering attention of the uninterested spectator, as much by the brilliancy as by the irregularity of its appearance. To this phenomenon has been applied the term "comet

from the Greek KoμETES, as the ancients imagined a resemblance between the train of light that occasionally accompanies this phenomenon and dishevelled hair. In days of superstition and astrology, the sight of a comet was sufficient to

The whole labour of this important investigation was borne by Clairant, Lalande, and a lady by the name of Madame Lepaute, who appears to have rendered very material assistance. Lalonde in his "Theorie du Mouvement des Comètes," has given us a graphic account of the labour involved. "During six months," he remarks, "we calculated from morning till night, sometimes even at meals, the consequence of changed my constitution for the remainder of my life. The assistance rendered by Madi me Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society," vol. 4.

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Lepante was such, that without it we never of time in the perihelion passage would not have
could have dared to have undertaken this enormous amounted to more than thirteen, instead of thirty
labour, where it was necessary to calculate for days.
every degree, and for 150 years, the distance
and force of each of the two planets (Jupiter and
Saturn) with respect to the Comet."

THE EAR-ITS USES AND ABUSES.
BY DR. USSHER.
(Concluded from page 30.)

WE

On the 14th of November, 1758, Clairaut announced to the French Academy of Sciences, the memorable conclusion that was the result of. such enormous labour. E are all familiar with the fact that sound He declared that the effect of Jupiter, would be to delay the perihelion comes better through water; a musical passage by the enormous amount of 518 days, box placed on a tumber of water sounds far louder and that Saturn would further cause it to be re-than on a table. We doctors use the stethoscope, tarded by 100 days, the whole effect would be or chest tube, with our patients because it contherefore about 20 months, and Clairaut fixed ducts to the ear sounds that we would otherwise the perihelion passage to take place on the 13th of April, 1759. Great curiosity prevailed as the be in ignorance of. The smitten tuning fork time approached, and intense interest was excited gives a feeble sound until it is placed on a solid in the hope of the verification of the prediction. body; what, then, more probable that these mysAll doubt as to the identity of the comet with terious parts of the ear, of which we know but previous apparitions was removed, so far as the little, aid in multiplying sounds, and may, by disscientific world was concerned, but some appre-eased conditions of body, be altered, giving us the hension was felt lest circumstances should be unfavourable to a perception of the phenomenon. well-known deafness of the typhus fever, or the "We cannot doubt," observed Lalande, in 1757, exalted hearing of cerebral conditions? "that it will return: and even if astronomers should

In molluscs, or the the mussel tribe, in annelids not see it, they will not be the less persuaded of (leech tribe), and also in cephalopods (or the cuttle its return. They know that the faintness of its fish tribe) the granular vibratory bodies above light, and its great distance, perhaps even bad weather, may keep it from our view, but the public spoken of are found. Insects, moreover, says will find it difficult to believe us; they will put Carpenter, are capable of attracting each other by this discovery which has done so much honour the noises they make, although the organs of to modern philosophy, among the number of pre-hearing cannot be discovered, and the strong tions spring up again in the colleges, contempt among the ignorant, terror among the people, and seventy-six years will elapse, before there will be another opportunity of removing all

dictions made at hazard. We shall see disserta

doubt."

Lalande's fears were not realised. Om Christ

mas Day in the year 1758, a farmer and amateur astronomer, named Palitzch, living near Dresden, first perceived the comet in a telescope of eight feet focal length, aided by his powerful sight. It has been said that: Palitzch perceived the comet with his naked eye,, at a time when it was invisible to every European astronomer, assisted by their telescopes, but the Baron de Zach has corrected this error, and appears to have been personally acquainted with this diligent observer of the heavens. Palitzch saw the comet again on the 26th of December; and on the 28th of December it was detected by Dr. Hoffmann, Messier, "the comet ferret" as he has been styled, had been looking out for the comet for two and a half years previously, instigated by Delisle, who was then the director of the Paris Observatory, but notwithstanding his long and diligent search he was one of the last to detect it, owing to the weather being unfavourable for observation. Messier detected the comet on the 21st of January in the following year, and observed it regular y for the next three weeks ensuing. Delisle would not allow Messier to give notice to the astronomers of that city, that the long expected body was in sight, and he remained the only observer before the comet was lost in the sun's rays. Such a discreditable and selfish con cealment of an interesting discovery, is not likely to sully again the annals of astronomy. Some members of the French Academy looked upon Messier's observations, when published as forgeries but his name stood too high for such imputations to last long, and the positions were soon received as authentic, and have been of great service in correcting the orbit of the comet at the last

return.

A discussion of these observations would show that the perihelion passage took place on the 12th of March, just one mouth previous to the date fixed by Clairaut, but we should have said that at the time Clairaut made his prediction to the French Academy, he pointed out, that, having been pressed for time he had neglected various small quantities, depending upon the perturbations of the Earth, Mars, &c., which might exercise an influence one way or the other, to the amount of a month, so that his prediction really was within the limit of time he had allowed him self, and if we consider that the received values of Jupiter and Saturn were very much in error, and that the existence of Uranus and Neptune was not even su pected, we must allow very grea: praise to the accuracy to which Clairaut was able to bring his investigation. Laplace has shown that if the mass of Saturn had been as well known to Clairaut, as it was in his time, the error

"Hind on Comets."

assiduous, at length entered the University, obtained his degree, and became no longer the "idler about town," but one of God's ministers, and the deepest pang that good man ever felt was a retrospect of the misspent past. The pernicious example of such an idler is baneful to hundreds, his influence, like that of the good, is far and wide. Can you or I tell the good that a single number of the ENGLISH MECHANIC can accomplish -No! but I tell you what we can do our best to help. A kind word or look may keep some one within the path of duty, and men will be is not of earth, and there is a prospect at the forced to say, "Here is an influence at work that end of the path giving us such light and comfort that our hearts are warmed, and open to the wayworn and toil crossed at our side." We think only of the help from hand to hand, and if the recipent is surprised that good comes without either motive or reward, he believes, that the way of the world is not so, and the gift is God-sent.

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of the ear. Truly it has been a long-suffering Now let us have a word or two about the abuses organ. The armamentarium medicum that old ladies had in reserve was fearful! Each possessed her peculiar "leperons distilment," which, prothat she carried her medications in a girdle near ducible at a moment's notice, led to the supposition of access. First in the armoury came a pewter syringe, large enough to shoot a fly, and which boys used to look upon as a special perquisite, a weapon of surprise for their sisters in every nook good nor harm, unless you pricked the unlucky and corner. These spray producers did neither analogy of the case leads almost to certainty, wight in his ear-passage with the point of the although demonstration may be impossible. A pewter and startled him into an attitude of comspecial organ in spiders has not been discovered, bativeness. Worse, far worse, was in store for you but the story of the imprisoned if your ear ached. Laudanum, one of the least cer quoted offensive of the compounds, hot oil and laudanum, gives no doubt on that score. In man the organ oil of cloves, vinegar and cayenne pepper, cloves of hearing is amplified into a perfect ear, and as of garlic, and roasted onion, may be taken as we go down the scale of creation all manner of samples; in fact, anything the druggist recommenmodifications are found; each and all apportioned ded was safe to have a trial. Leeches, tartar emetic by a beneficent Creator to the diverse existence of then runnings from the ear were common enough, ointment, savin ointment, were mild agents, and the being. The nervous supply of the ear is one traceable, as a surety, to these female meof the mighty problems that baffle the perse- diciners and their male coadjutors, whose verance of anatomists, nor can the microscope only authority was the recipe book (that valuinvade the subtile mystery. The auditory nerve able relic),, or the equally incontrovertible is connected and interlaced with so many others, authority comprehended in the ipse dixit of that compound or complex actions arise which we have been rank heresy to reject. More fashionable your grandmother, or her dame, which it would recognise only in their results, but cannot unravel. days arrived, and people, ashamed of folly, coated Man has wearied himself over the problem, and it with mystery. Black wool was inserted, prois apparently as far as ever from the solution; the cured possibly for gold, and cut by a cuaning day may arrive when the Creator will permit moon, from the head of a two-year-old ram, woman "in the mysterious light of the young light to penetrate the mystery of brain action, midway "between the horn and the leg." Fairies and the convolutions of grey and white may un- were perhaps invoked for its safe keeping, the fold their meaning, but the territory of mind and fortunate possessor withdrew it with an air of matter as it exists in our brain-case, seems to be solemnity, which seemed to say: You do not beyond: man's reach; the one may be shattered, know its virtues" leastways they were 'id,” the other spoiled, and we become mere examples like the money of Tenneyson's Northern Farmer, of animal life, wrecked and helpless, on the whose scion committed the awful wrong of being shores of Time. A slight blow, a terrible shock, "sweet upo' parson's lass." If you had the temerity may send the throne of man, his ever-busy brain, to ask the sheepish owner what the product was, reeling in the dust, and small may be the interval there was such a hemming and hawing, preceeding between the kingly state of a Nebuchadnezzar the "Don't know" (which in plain unvarnished and the grovellings of lowest life. Such is often, English was a lie) that the fool blushed to the aye, I might say an everyday result, of grasping eyes, and anywhere that blushes could go. On and unsated ambition, or the reckless victim of another occasion you found some of your gaiety, or the worse slave of lust, whether of the respected relations with their heads encased in a world, the eye, the flesh, or the pride of life; pillow-shaped concern, looking uncommonly wet powers sacrificed, alienation of useful faculties, and uncomfortable, not taking their ease for talents thrown away, souls perilled, if not lost. certain in this pillow of home-grown camomiles These are the means and ways by which our luna- and bruised poppy head, heightened into activity tic asylums are filled-vessels, I might compare by a little medication poured near the seat of them to, freighted for the green hills far away, pain, "but it didn't do no good," and the light of unsatisfied with the daily manna of a blessed con- our grandmother (God bless her!) died out in a tentment, fretting their lives against a cage of proper way, and we are forced by way of epitaph, to their own making, dying of unrest, deprived even say, "They did their best, angels could do no more.', of the stimulus of a purpose, they have their use, Now people are wiser, they respect the argumentum but it is as beacons to warn the thoughtful among ad hominem, but they keep it at a respectful the crowd not to speed, for the very life of them, distance. Hardly anyone in those days had seen after illusions and shadows that may be touched the drum of the ear in the living, although some but never grasped. Why is it that so many fail must have been ac uated by curiosity. The silver in life? Because they are not in earnest. You speculum was not divined, or the lamp of Avery, rarely see a man with any measure of success who or the contrivance of Brunton, means for casting has not made it for himself. I remember once the glowing beam into the dark recess. Illuminameeting with a very excellent man, who, in early tion then was contined to the monks, but in these life, up to two or five-and-twenty, had been days of endoscopes, laryngoscopes, and ophthal living a useless existence, "lying on his oars." moscopes, we can see in the living what our He had the ability, as the result proved, but pre- fathers little dreamt of, and in a generation ferred to bury his talent in the earth. A true or so to come the readers of the existing friend one day accosted him and said, "How long serials will think us as great fools as we are you going to continue this kind of existence, sometimes consider Our respected ancestors: do you ever intend to be in carnest?" The-who, however, manag d to live longer, and kept young man felt the rebuke just; and went home. better order, when life was less sacred than now, He that day to k to his Latin grammar, became and crime had a show of modesty.

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A MOST EFFICIENT LATHE.
E illustrate a very complete amateur lathe,

it may justly be considered the most complete] fortunate very few who can afford such costly amateur lathe in existence. It is capable, we apparatus, or as illustrating the perfection to believe, of efficiently performing all, or very which the lathe can be advanced, but also as

WE illustring to fitus Salt, Esq., of Saltaire, nearly all the operations that can be accomplished guides in constructing any apparatus for execu-
in the lathe; and this not by means of ting any one of the purposes of which this lathe
makeshifts, but through mechanism which has will do all.
been carefully considered with a view to simpli- The crank and treadle are much the same as
city with efficiency, and constructed throughout those in ordinary use; but the crankshaft also
regardless of expense.
carries a pair of pulleys, one fast and the other
loose, for taking a flat belt proceeding from some
source of motive power. Mr. Salt, we believe, has

near Bradford, who kindly furnished us with
some very fine photographs of it, from which our
illustrations have been engraved. This lathe was
designed for Mr. Salt by Mr. Smith, of Jersey.
It was chiefly made at Saltaire, but was finished
by a London maker. As, with its apparatus, it A lathe of this sort necessarily contains many
has cost, we believe, upwards of £1500, we think | ingenuities which are not only interesting to the

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