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AN OBSERVER-The insertion of your letter would lead to no good. Immediately a publication resorts to such tricks as giving away such things for nothing, you may conclude that it is gradually dying. We never knew a respectable journal to stoop to such practices, and we never knew a weak one to gain any good by so doing.

THE INVENTOR.

IN obedience to the suggestions of a number of readers, we hav decided on appropriating a portion of our space to a condensed list of patents as nearly as possible up to the date of our issue, LETTERS PATENT DURING WEEK ENDING MARCH 21st, 1870.

FAIR PLAY.-We would gladly accommodate you, but to give APPLICATIONS FOR what you require would occupy too much space.

G. GROVER.-A short description of the " Macclesfield" veloci-
pede, appeared in No. 258, page 608, Vol. X.
ALFRED HOPPS.-See present number of the ENGLISH ME-

CHANIC.

HARRY BROTHERS.-We occasionally, to oblige a correspondent, insert a query which savours of an advertisement: that is no reason we should do it in all instances. The less it is done, we admit, the better.

THANKS. David Harcourt and Co. thank W. R. Rose, of Haddingham, Suffolk, for his unsolicited recommendation of their brake chain. Messrs. Harcourt's letter will be found on page 47.

VIBRATOR.-The roll came by book post, but not the letter with the stamps.

E. A. WITTY. A recipe for welding cast steel was given by "Black Diamond," No. 238, page 113.

JAMES REEVE.-Consult the back vols. of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, or Mr. Ede's little book on the" Management of Steel," published by Tweedie, Strand. METEOROLOGIST.-We reply to your query by another. How is it that if you evaporate a strong solution of salt and water, the salt remains?

IGNORAMUS.- Cannot say. Write the editor of the journal in which you saw the review. One of Francis' or Fairbairn's presses would suit you. See our advertisement pages. ERRATUM.-In letter on "Opaque Lanterns," in No. 260, page 656, by an error in the punctuation, the meaning is rendered very obscure. Thus, at line 15 it reads: "A B is the front of the lantern C D E G, the part to be attached at a point E, about 24in. from D. The right-hand corner is cut off," &c.; should be, "A B is the front of the lantern, CDEG the part to be attached. At a point E, about 2in. from D, the right-hand corner is cut off," &c.

W. H. P.-Instructions for re-gilding picture frames were given by several subscribers some weeks back.

A NEW SUBSCRIBER (Cornhill).-A good list of varnishes

THE

749. W. Husband, Hayle, atmospheric stamps and hammers.
750. J. Felber, Manchester, machinery for manufacture of paper
from wood.

751. R. Winstanley and Barker. Manchester, excavating coal.
752. W. R. Pape, Newcastle-on-Tyne, fire-arms.
753. H. Manton and J. H Mole. Bir ningham, swivels.
754. G. Brown, Glasgow, velocipedes,

755. W. H. Samuel, Liverpool, friction lights.

756. R S. Prowse, Liverpool, hand trucks.

757. F. Pattison, blackening (for foundry purposes).
758. J. C. McLagan, London, sewing machines.

759. J. C. Atkin, Deeley, and Newbery, of Sheffield, furnaces.
760. C. Stockbridge, Bishop's Stortford, eollars and saddles for
horses.

761. J.C. Ramsden, Bradford, looms.

762. J H. Johnson. 47, Lincoln's-Inn fields, apparatus for governing speed of motive power engines.-A communication. 763. P. C. Nicholas de Ferrari. Paris, hygienic and mechanical hat 764. E. Dugdale and J. Dugdale, Blackburn, sizing machines, 765. G. Jaite, Berlin, a telegraphical apparatus "Jaite." upright pianoforte actions, 766. G. H. H. Brockbank, Camden Town, improvements in

767. P. W. Spencer, Raygill, York, gentleman, limekilns. 768. J. Beckett and R. Levers, Wandsworth, an improved buckle. kilns-A communication 769. W. E. Newton, 66, Chancery lane, improvements in malt

770. W. D. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, improvements in gun carriages. 771. R Lakin, of Messrs. Curtis, Parr, and Madeley, Manchester, improvements in mules.

772. R. Tonge, afinchester, improvements in looms: 773. W. C. Mitchell, Belfast, certain improvements in books, 774. W. Morgan, 4, John's-place, Mitcham, preservation of life from fire.

775. G. Holdsworth, Halifax, producing drawings or designs upon squares or ruled design paper, for manufacturing purposes. 776. W. Rainforth. Brayford Head, Lincoln, rotary corn screens. 777. P. Murray engineer. Quebec, differential pulley blocks, 778. H. W. Hammond, Manchester, "helical" revolver.-A communication.

779. J. C. Mewburn, 172. Fleet-street, apparatus for raising and forcing fluids, and for cleaning suction strainers by steam.-A communication.

780. J. T. Walker, Albany, U.S., making horseshoes.

appeared at the commencement of last volume. Your query trenches or ditches.-A communication. about the lathe is obscurely worded. FORWARD.-Jewellers' rouge is frequently prepared by precipitating sulphate of iron with potash, well working the yellow oxide, and calcining it uutil it acquires a scarlet

781. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, forming 782. J. Homan, 80, Coal Exchange, London, railway and other

colour.

ERRATUM.-In No. 260, Query No. 2116, in second line, for "200 falls "lead" 200 galls."

SPOILED BEAUTY.-From your handwriting we think you should have written to one of the many journals who profess to preside over the toilet. We cannot advise you. Your complaint is either an imaginary one, or needs at once the advice of a medical man skilled in the treatment of skin diseases.

F. J. T.-Nothing new.
Z.-See advertisement pages.

are

POOR BILLY.-Numerous "Selections from the Poets" published by different booksellers, at all prices. Any bookseller will guide you to a selection. Brass tubing for telescopes of various dimensions may be found advertised in our columns, among others by Mr. E. Tydeman, of 9, Mighell-street, Brighton.

E. H. AVIS. Give the information through our columns.
J. H. RUMSEY.-Not in your neighbourhood.

E. LETHBRIDGE.-The fault is in your indistinct writing. Your second letter does not clearly give the name of the town you reside in.

J. W. KASEL-First question recently; the second we cannot insert.

G. W. PALMER.-Forwarded.

CASUAL OBSERVER.-Box Tunnel, we think.

A. B. C.-Ask any engraver.

J. CROMPTON.-Send it to the watch doctor.

A YOUNG ENGINEER.-Inquire of a friend.

SHOREDITCH.-The challenge made by Mr. John Hampden, of Swindon, was accepted by Mr. Alfred Wallace, F.R.G.S.; but when it will be decided we cannot tell.

LEES. No charge for inserting "Queries."

CHANIC.

A WELL-WISHER-We are somewhat surprised that you should recommend such a thing to the ENGLISH MEIt is only tottering publications that think of holding out sach baits, as offering magnificent prizes to all their subscribers "for nothing.' weakness is either cunning or crawling. Strength stands erect; J. W.-Thanks. Next week. Try again. A. G. HOULT.-Your letter came to hand.

W. RICE. You enclosed no stamps.

AN OLD SUBSCRIBER.-You cannot be, or you would have know, that the wheel question was discussed ad nauseum, a few months since.

VERBUM EST VERBUM, takes us to task for alluding to "Earth Closets," and " Ketchup made from Horses' Liver," in our pages Our opinion is that such things affect the health of the community, and ought to be talked about; and since they have been talked about and inquired into, the health of the public has improved. It is known to many that "ketchup" is made from horses' liver, and the sooner all know it the better. Is not "Verbum est Verbum "more nice than wise?

E. G. says, "I am heartily glad to welcome beck the 'Harmonious Blacksmith.' May his anvil ring loud and long!" W.B. We are not bound to answer every query. The obligation between the proprietor and reader is, or should be, mutual.

W. WEBBER says, "What an exquisitely happy illustration, that about the beautiful little girl selling bricks and the Temple of Knowledge! I will endeavour to send you a brick now and then." Thanks.

EARLY RISER-Had you consulted the last index, you might have saved yourself the labour of writing.

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Waggons.

783. J. Watkins, Birmingham, improvements in dies for metallic tubes.

784. J. H. Johnson, 47, Lincoln's Inn-fields, construction of roads. A communication.

785. F. Virtue, Liverpool Oil Mills, Liverpool, hydraulic presses. 786. J. Moulton. Boston, U.S., elastic rolls for clothes wringers 787. D. Spill, Hackney, compounds containing xyloidine. 788. G. Buck, 28. Lawrence-lane, fire-lighters.

789. T. Williams, 1, Brunswick-street, Hackney-road, sewing

machines.

790. J. Pinchbock, 27, Leadenhall-street, London, water tube boilers.

791. G. De Lavigne, Paris, applying cork for protection from caloric. 792. W. E. Jedge, 11, Wellington-street, Strand, damping woven fabrics.

793. F. A. Barrow, Glasgow, recovering reagents from oil. 794. J. Walker, Glasgow, improvements in bottles.

795, E. R. Southby, Shotts, Lanark, distilling crude mineral oils. zincographic, and other printing presses.-A communication, 796. E. T. Hughes, 123, Chancery-lane, London, lithographic, 797. A. M. Clark, 53, Chancery-fane, moulds used in stereotyping. -A communication,

798. J. Davis and W. N. Davis, Hemel Hempstead, two furrow ploughs. 799. C. H. Rost, Dresden, washable papers.

800, T. J. Smith, Robertson, Brooman, and Company, 166, Fleetstreet, apparatus for holding stamps for office and general uses.801. S. Perkins, Gorton, improvements in steam boilers.

A communication.

80%. C. Janicot, Paris, producing photographic pictures on fabrics. 803. R. Girdwood, Edinburgh, dressing stone.

804. W. West, Leeds, boilers and apparatus for generating steam 805. C. Young. Hampstead, machinery for sawing wood. 806. J. H. Johnson, 47, Lincoln's Inn-fields, crimping machines -A communication.

807. . White, 68, Queen-street, Cheapside, an improved propeller. -A communication.

for an invention of limekilns-A communication. 808. H. E. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, Middlesex, Civil Engineer,

809 J. M. Napier, York-road, Lambeth, apparatus for running or pouring metals.

810. Sir W. Fairbairn, Manchester, steam boilers.
811. W. Woofe, Bedford, apparatus for guiding ploughs.
812. W. Friar, Woolwich, domestic fire-escape.
813. W. Austin, Hatton Garden, boxes and cases.

814. W. Guest, Great Saffron-hill, Farringdon-road, ropes, cords and wire ropes.

815. A M Strathern, Coatbridge, apparatus for getting minerals, and for compressing air.

816. 1. Keely. Nottingham, looped fabrics.

817. S. Norris, Paris, wood paving.

818. J. Hockey, 187, Carlton-road, Kilburn, ventilating lights.

819. G. W. Fox, Manchester, medicinal oils.

820. W. A. Lyttle, Hammersmith, wheels,

sewing boots and shoes.-A communication. 821. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, machinery for

822. B. Wade, Copley, signals and brakes for railways. 823. J. S. Stocks, B. Stocks, and S. Hutchinson, of Leeds, scouring

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3317. E. Bazin, spinning looms.

3321. G. Baron d'Adelsward, blast furnaces.

3344. C. D. Abel, utilising stroams, springs, lakes, ponds, surface waters as motive power.

3399. M. Henry, moving railway carriages and other heavy bodie from place to place.

3411. T. Brown, boring rocks.-A communication.

3127, J. Brunton, railway signals.

3491, J. H. Johnson, spring mattresses.-A communication.

3518. W. R. Lake, harness for draught animals.

3521. J. L. Booth, rails for railroads.

3552. A. M. Clark, ornamenting figured muslin and gauze fabrics A communication.

3556. H. Byk, refining and bleaching paraffine.

3582, W. E. Newton, folding printed sheets.

3697. W. R. Lake, manufacture of steel bars.-A communication. 3718. C. H. Roeckner, disintegrating wood.

3725. A, M. Clark, curtains and blinds.

58. R. Morris treating shoddy to obtain ammonia.
116. T. Restell, breech-loading arms and cartridges.
151. T. Whitehead, wool combing and drawing machinery.
229. G. A. Buchholz, manufacturing semolina and flour.
237. C. Lungley construction of ships or vessels.
254. R. Haworth looms for weaving.

281. C. Mahler, improved windmill."

371. A. B. Childs, cleaning, scouring, and decorticating wheat
42.. J. Botterill, consuming smoke and economising fuel.
487. C. Bartholomew, getting coal.

492. E. Hill, engine turning or engraving.

521. G. H. Ellis, washing, wringing, and mangling. 543. A. Dickson and T. Law, pressed leather

$56. W. B. Leachman, hydraulic apparatus for raising water. 568. P. J. Livesley, manufacture of hair cloth.

576. R. J. Westley, billiard and other tables.

592. A. V. Newton, sewing machines.

600. B. G. George, ornamental and other designs and devices
602. W. and R. Mushet, improvements in casting metals,
621. G. H. Ellis, ladders.

623. R. B. Boyman, propelling vessels.

665. E. Wood, and H, Boghill, potters' glazes.

683. J. Polson, treating grain.

690. C. Wyndham, bicycles.

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2779 R. Collis, velocipedes

2788 J. T. Gaze and J. Hymas, fire bars

2790 J. P. Turner, in buckles or fastenings

2301 F. W. Fox and E. Walker, engines and their boilers.

2818 C. D. Abel, a new green colouring matter for dyeing and printing

2824 A. V. Newton, horse-shoe nails

2860 W. Edmonson, machinery for etching

2874 G. Rose, construction of annealing pots

2916 W. E Newton, wheel for propelling ships

3242 J. Logan and W. Gardner, ornamenting textile fabrics 3433 G. Bertram, straining paper pulp

3538 C, Vavin, separating metals and magnetic substances from other bodies

72 C. D. Abel, treatment of cast-iron for production of castings 187 F. Whitfield, improvements in locks

2'1 J. H. Johnson, applying anti-friction rollers to wheels

261 W. R. Lake, mechanism for spinning wool

279 W. R. Lake, apparatus for producing rotary motion

282 F. Claudet, treatment of cupreous ores containing silver 2771 J. M. Spence, disinfectants

2773 J. Mackenzie, weighing machines

2776 J. E. Hewett, designs on metal surfaces

2778 W. Strang, preparing warps for the loom

2795 J. Stuart, treatment of ores

2806 E. O'Brien, improved self-feeding, discharging, and register ing beam balance

2820 J. Bullough, looms for wearing

2830 W. Walker, furnaces for steam boilers

2906 E. A. Pontifex, refrigerators for cooling worts

2933 J. Chandler, drawing and preventing waste of water from

pipes

2942 A. H. Brandon, improved means of locomotion
3303 M. Sautter, improved reloading cartridge shell
3335 G. F. Cornelius, manufacture of paint and varnish
8351 T. Aitken, improvement in "washer cloth"

3394 J. Dunkerley, machinery for planking" bodies of hats, bonnets, or other coverings for the head

3476 A. R. Henderson, apparatus for shearing or clipping animale
3524 H. H. Murdoch, forming and joining ends of pipes
3540 J. Childs, manufacture of bread and biscuits

3754 W. R. Lake, improvements in sectional steamboats
121 W. Sinton, improvements in churns

123 A. Courvoisier. improvemeuts in double-faced watches

141 T. Peard, for adjusting and securing knobs of locks
147 H. Haines, of lead-oncased tin pipes

256 A. W. G. Weeks, G. Deal, G. Lilly white, and A. O. Launders, of hot water boilers, joints, and valves

259 E. S. Cathels, apparatus for manufacture of gas, part also ap
plicable for ventilating mines, promoting combustion, and pump-
ing, measuring, and forcing fluids
321 W. R. Lake, improvements in machines for mowing grASS

PATENT ON WHICH THE STAMP DUTY OF £50 HAS
BEEN PAID.

755 W. R. Lake, improvements in rotary engines and pumps
779 W. H. Parsons, improvements in setting boilers and safety.

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834. A. V. Newton, 66, Chancery-lane, manufacturing barrels.- ment in steam boilers A communication.

835. J. Ascough, Handsworth, candles.

836. G. Skey. Tamworth, gas purifiers and scrubbers.

837. W. R. Lake, Southampton buildings, London, wheels for railway engines-A communication.

838. A. Barlow, Strand, jacquard mechanism for weaving. 839. W. R. Lake, Southampton Buildings, London, micrometic steelyard,

PATENTS BEING PROCEEDED WITH.

3216. P. and A. Walker, an improved gas meter.

8223. R. Jones, a paper holder.

3231. A. Bohlken, terriers or ground augers.

3232. E. Thomas, safety lamps.

3. W. Donbavand, balances,

3251. G. Simpson, withdrawing beverages from casks,

3263. A. C. Brakell, obtaining and applying motive power. 3265, O. Rose, pistons,

3271. H. Minns, letter pillar posts.

3274. W. E. Gedge, a new composition for preserving metal.-A communication.

1 6

3261. B. Shaw, cutting soap.

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3275, W. E. Gedge, machino for cutting wood and metala.

3231. T. A. Dillon, safety lamp.

828. W. Richardson, valves,

3283. H. H. Grierson, cutting or dressing stone.

3292, C. D. Abel, refining and desilvering lead.—A communication.

803 J. W. Yates, improvements in handles of spades

857 T. Pebardy, stays or artificial supports

858 H. Fassmann, metal ties for securing bales of cotton

787 F. Gregory, improvements in machinery for refrigerating

purposes

818 H. Clifton, improvements in refrigerators

822 J. A. Limbert, lowering, and moving heavy bodies 837 J. Lawson, spinning flax, tow, hemp, and other fibres 915 M. P. W. Boulton, apparatus for receiving motion or energy from fluids and for imparting it to them

755 W. R. Lake, improvements in rotary engines and pumps 842 H. Wilde, electro-magnetic and magneto-electric induction machines

1049 W. T. Henley, machinery for the manufacture and treatment of wire

1128 W. Weild, machine for winding yarn or thread

PATENTS ON WHICH THE STAMP DUTY OF £300 HAS
BEEN PAID,

719 W. Symington, apparatus for roasting and treating coffee nud other organic substances

717 G. De Laire, improvements in the manufacture of brows colouring matters

739 A. Morel, apparatus for generating carbenic acid

The English Mechanic

AND

MIRROR OF SCIENCE AND ART.
FRIDAY, APRIL 8, 1870.

ΟΝ

ON CHEMICAL SYMBOLS.

BY GEORGE E. DAVIS.

CHAPTER I.

N looking back to the days of the alchemists, when the great search for the philosopher's stone was being made, among a confused heap of retorts, alembics, crucibles, and other pieces of laboratory apparatus used in early scientific research, may often be seen figured a chart, covered with mystic signs. These signs, which are seldom alluded to in modern chemistry, are, in fact, the forefathers of our present symbolic notation. Our predecessors, with a view no doubt to keep their science to themselves, invented these mystic formula, although we must allow them one point-viz., that it might have been for the purpose of abbreviation. The time for these mystic symbols has for ever gone, and the f ct of their existence seems nearly to have gone too, no one expressing a wish that they should ever return. Some of the forms are very peculiar, and are characteristic of the age from which they sprung; others are extremely simple, consisting only of straight line or circles, though members of this latter class are but very few. Each compound had its respective symbol, as well as each metal, for in those days the metals were supposed to be composed of a calx with a subtle body which was termed phlogiston.

It is curious and exceedingly interesting to read of the experiments made by the alchemists

Fe; 11 was that used for lead; 12, salammoniac,
now called 'ammonium chloride, NH,Cl; 13, gold,
now Au; 14, sulphur S; 15, litharge or lead
oxide; 16, lime-water, which is a solution of
calcium hydrate, CaH2O2; 17 was used for
copper, now Cu; 18, liver of sulphur, an impure
trisulphide of potassium ;19 fusible earths; and
20 was the symbol used for that subtle and
hypothetical body, phlogiston.

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Before the time of Bergman, Kirwan, and Wenzel, the symbols used had no quantitative signification, and in fact, during their time the Dalton, of Manchester, gave forth to the world his theory was not developed. About the year 1804, celebrated atomic theory. Dalton's theory is too well known to require explanation, but it may be necessary to state that he proposed a series of

table of atomic weights, 100 parts of silver would unite with 7 of oxygen; therefore 100 would be the atomic weight of silver. These numbers, it will be seen, are inexact, but the study was then only in its infancy; 1 part of hydrogen unites with 8 of oxygen; and the quantity of silver required for those 8 parts of oxygen should be 108.

Berzelius greatly improved the formulæ of Dalton; he introduced the system of using the initial letter of the element, giving up entirely the use of the circle; Dalton's formula for carbonic acid, sulphuric acid, and water, would then become CO,,SO,, and O. The system was accepted as an improvement, but Berzelius considered that hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, phosphorus, arsenic, and certain of the metals could not exist as a single atom, but existed in the form of double atoms, the symbols for which he wrote with a bar, being equivalent to two single atoms of hydrogen; but he also made use of a farther abbreviation; instead of writing O to signify oxygen, he added a dot to the symbol of the element which was united with it; therefore represented water, 8 was sulphuric acid, and C signified carbonic acid. The quantitative signification of the symbols of Berzelius, with one or two exceptions, are the same as those now in use, but his formula did not exist for long; the double atoms were insurmountable obstacles, and to the chemists of the time, the simple atomic formula of Dalton was much preferable to the more complicated notions of Berzelius. Had he rejected the idea of double atoms, the system which was so much in accordance with the experiments of Gay Lussac, and the law of Ampère, might have been more generally adopted. After being in use for a period of about twenty years, it fell into disuse, atoms equivalents. Water was written HO because and double atoms being entirely superseded by

was the smallest proportion of oxygen that would enter into the composition of water by combining with 1 of hydrogen.

The reader will say, perhaps, when he knows

in former days, to prove theories, incorrect, and formula which differed greatly from that already that most of the atomic weights were fixed by

was

in use.

He proposed to use circles to represent the atoms of the elements; the atom of hydrogen was represented by a dot in the centre, nitrogen a bar, sulphur a cross, while the atoms of the metals were represented by circles containing their initial letter, and compounds were represented by combining the various atoms.

The following are some specimens of Dalton's symbols, together with his mode of representing the structure of compounds :

Ө

Berzelius, How was it that the weights found by him, the products of a long life of study, were perverted, and the fruit of his labours used to perfect the views of others? This arose from the adoption of the double atoms, and caused other chemists to divide them or rather their numbers, and of course the numbers of the other atoms which entered into combination with them.

the existence of substances which indeed had no existence; for instance, sulphur supposed to be a compound, resulting from the combination of vitriolic acid and phlogiston. The great Stahl made an experiment to ascertain the quantities of each which entered into the composition of sulphur, and he found that there existed seven parts of acid to one of phlogiston. Stahl and Boerhaave considered phlogiston as a compound of elementary fire with a substance The different systems which have engaged atthen unknown; it was contained in the metals, in tention, are, Dalton's system in which oxygen charcoal, spirits of wine, and in many other was taken as 7, and hydrogen 1; the number of bodies it was considered the principle of inthe oxygen atom was corrected later by Wollaston flammability, and was identical with the alcohol and others; Berzelius's system, iu which of Boerhaave. Phlogiston was considered to exist oxygen W88 taken as the standard, and in nearly a pure state in sulphur, charcoal, and designated 100 the corresponding number for all inflammable bodies which burn without deposithydrogen being 6-24, but as he considered it as a ing smoke. In order to determine the quantity of 1 signifies hydrogen; 2, oxygen; 3, nitrogen; double atom the number would be 12:48; a phlogiston which entered into the composition of 4, carbon; and 5, sulphur; and the atoms, by third system was Wollaston's, in which oxygen sulphur, Stahl exposed liver of sulphur to a combining together, formed salts, which were was taken as 10 and hydrogen as 1.25, existing gentle heat, when he says the phlogiston was dis- represented as below. Dalton considered water as a double atom; carbon and sulphur on this sipated in vapours, and the alkali united with the as composed of 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 of system would be 7.51 and 20:43 respectively. vitriolic acid (sulphuric acid). The momenclature oxygen; sulphuric acid (as sulphur trioxide was Some even proposed that oxygen should be reof the age was very bad, its modification was then termed) of 3 of oxygen to 1 of sul-garded as unity making the numbers one-tenth effected by Lavoisier who introduced the system phur, whilst carbonic acid (carbon dioxide) was of Wollaston's equivalents, but chemists settled which is still used; but as the reader's attention composed of an atom of carbon enclosed between down to Dalton's views regarding hydrogen as is drawn to symbols, we will not enter that sub-2 atoms of oxygen. unity on account of its simplicity and the low ject. The woodcut in the next column will show numbers with which it deals; Berzelius's numbers some of the peculiarly shaped figures, which were are objectionable on these grounds, that they in used by the alchemists for the purpose of reprevolve so many figures, in calculation as well a senting chemical compounds. in memory

These are only a few from a large number of symbols, as the alchemists were not content. with symbols for compounds only, but they represented all their apparatus by their means. There are others which are decidedly more peculiar than the above, but these will serve to give the reader a notion of the ancient symbols. This was a great improvement on the existing No. 1 in the cut is the symbol which was used system; but still it had its disadvantages; for to express vitriolic acid, now written H,SO.; 2 instance, compounds containing a large number is that for marine acid, now called hydrochloric of atoms in the molecule occupied a great deal of acid or hydrogen chloride, HCl; 3 was the space when formulated, but the symbol exhibited symbol used for fixed alkali, as potassium a definite weight, which fact alone was a decided carbonate was then termed K,CO,; 4 is the improvement. symbol used to signify alum, Ala (SO4)3; 5 was Dalton's symbols were employed to indicate the symbol for antimony, Sb; 6, Silver, now what he termed an atom of an element, i.e., the written Ag; 7 was the symbol used for quick-weight which would unite with 1 atom of hydrogen lime, now called calcium oxide, and written weighing 1. He found that 7 parts of oxygen united Ca0; 8, arsenic, As is the present symbol; 9, with the 1 of hydrogen, therefore he took 7 as potash, now called potassium hydrate; 10, iron, the atomic weight of oxygen; aecording to his

The atomic weights, as we have seen before are, with one or two exceptions, identical with those of Berzelius, and the reader will no doubt ask why we have gone back to the views of that great chemist. Gerhardt in studying organic structure noticed that organie compounds when oxidised and entirely split up into carbon dioxide and water, yielded always two equivalents, the fact of one equivalent proceeding from an equivalent proceeding from an equivalent of an organic compound being positively unknown; his opinion was that as one equivalent of the organic body, gave, always, two equivalents of carbonic acid, it were better to regard the 12 parts of carbon which existed in the 44 parts of carbonic acid as 1 atom and not 2 equivalents, the atomic weights of carbon and oxygen would then become 12 and 16 respectively. These were the weights originally assigned to the above elements by Berzelius, but the

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formula of this latter chemist was in many cases double that of Gerhardt, thus the formule for alcohol was Ca H, O2 and was regarded as a compound of ether and water, and Berzelius's views on the constitution of nitric acid, were, that it contained the elements of anhydrous nitric acid and water in distinct parts of the molecule, thus:-N,O,+ H2O or, an electro-positive and an electro-negative group. The opinions of Gerhardt received much attention, and the modified system, which it is as well to add, is neither strictly, Berzelius's nor Gerhardt's, generally spoken of as the new notation, is now universally adopted, as it agrees with Gay Lussac's law of volumes, Ampères law, and with Dulong and Petit's law of specific heat.

Ampère's law states that in equal volumes of gases under the same temperature and pressure exist an equal number of atoms, and likewise in equal volumes of the compound gases under similar circumstances exist an equal number of molecules; therefore, if 2 volumes of hydrogen unite with 1 volume of oxygen, it must be in proportion of 2 atoms to 1.

Dulong and Petit found that by multiplying the specific heat of an element by its atomic weight, that a nearly constant number was obtained-namely, 65, and the atomic weights of the new system are in accordance with their experiments; thus the specific heat of mercury is 003247, and this multiplied by 200 (the atomic weight) gives 6494, a number which nearly proaches the average 65. The specific heat of Bver is 005701, and this multiplied by the atomic weight gives a result which is rather lower than the last, 005701 × 1086-157. All the solid elements conform to this law, with the exception of several of the metalloids, carbon, silicium, &c. The graphite form of carbon, to conform to the law, ought to possess an atomic weight of over 30.

The following table will show at a glance the atomic weights corresponding to the different systems. The compounds introduced by Dalton are intentionally omitted, as the reader well knows that in Dalton's time, the alkalies and the alkaline earths were supposed to be elements, but Lavoisier's theory of salts was that they were composed of an acid and a metallic oxide, therefore potash and soda were long suspected, and after the isolation of potassium by Davy, the metals of the alkaline earths were soon obtained.

Only a few instances are given, the whole number of the elements occupying too much space, and those elements which are marked with an asterisk indicate Berzelius's double atoms:*Name Element. Symbol Dalton Berzelius Gerhardt New.

of

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Iron

Fe

38

350-527

28

Copper..

Cu

56

Platinum

Pt

100

395 6 1294645

108
65.2

200 56 31.75 63.5 98.5 197

In our next chapter we will consider the application of formule to molecular grouping. (To be continued.)

HALLEY'S COMET.
BY "OMICRON."

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will return again in the year 1758." Continued researches and calculations confirmed Halley in his supposition, and his tone grew proportionately more decided. No means then existed for computing the effect of the planetary perturbations, but he sagaciously concluded from an examination of the general derangement from planetary its next approach to perihelion, and that in conperturbation, that the comet would be retarded in sequence it would not be visible till the end of 1758 or the beginning of 1759. "Wherefore," says this illustrious astronomer, "if it should return agreeably to our prediction, impartial posterity will not refuse to acknowledge that this was first discovered by an Englishman." Nor has any ever ventured to attack the merit of the discovery, or attempt to detract from the glory that is due to Dr. Halley for the perseverance displayed in grasping a subject which involved such an immense amount of calculation. He assures us that his labours were "prodigiously " long and troublesome, but they have shed immortal honour on the enterprising calculator, and his discovery forms an epoch, and not an unimportant one, in the history of astronomy.

The true theory of cometary motion had its rise in Sir Isaac Newton, and the industry and intellect of successive astronomers have but confirmed his anticipations, and proved the truth of his predictions. Hardly second to Newton for his labours in this special field of astronomy, stands the illustrious Edmund Halley, the second Astro nomer Royal. To Newton must be granted the merit of a suggestive theory, to Halley the merit of working out the detail of the system, and bringing it to the test of observation: assuredly not the least of the labours of Halley that has merited the gratitude and admiration of posterity, is that in which he undertook to compute on the hypothesis of Newton, the orbits of 24 comets, which at that date was the entire number that As the time, when the next return of the had been reliably observed-a labour of which comet was expected, approached, intense interest the present Astronomer Royal has remarked that, was awakened in the minds of astronomers, perhaps, no other astronomer at that time was although the task of computing the exact date of capable of undertaking and leading to a success-return does not seem to have been willingly ful issue. The results of this enormous labour assumed by anyone, owing to the immense were formed into a table which was inserted in amount of labour it must necessarily entail. We the "Astronomia Cometica Synopsis," and ap- have seen, that at the time of Halley's prediction, peared in the volume of "Philosophical Trans- mathematical analysis was not sufficiently far actions" for 1705. Halley there declares that his advanced to enable anyone to compute the effect principal object was to give the means of deter- of planetary perturbation upon the comet, and mining whether any future comet moved in the in the middle of the eighteenth century imperfect path of any contained in his list, and with the methods rendered this a task of great difficulty. same paper appeared his table of parabolic motion, "dedicated," as he says, "to posterity, and which will last as long as the science of astronomy shall exist."

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The attempt, however, was made by Clairant, and it has fully deserved the applause it has received. To anyone not versed in calculations, there may not appear any difference in computing the perturbations of a planet and those of a comet, since both derive their derangement from the true ellipse described round the sun, from the same cause, and that the solution of the problem can be effected by expressing the effect of the disturbing forces, by the variation of the arbitrary constants that enter into the formula of elliptic motion. The differential variations of each of the elements of the orbit can be determined by this means, but in order to obtain the elements of the motion of the comet in its disturbed orbit, the integration of these formule is necessary, aud this integration involves an immense amount of difficulty and labour, of which we will say more hereafter. Euler, had not yet published his 0583 general theory of the variation of elements, although it was written, and Lagrange's memoir on the same subject was not produced till some years afterwards, so that Clairaut was in posession only of the methods he had employed in his lunar theory. fore of the comet's perturbation, Clairant sets For the calculation thereThe interval between the two first is therefore out with the same differential equation for the 76 years 53 days, and between the second pair reciprocal of the radius vector, which till within only 74 years 283 days, leaving a difference of a short time has been universally adopted in fifteen months between the two consecutive times lunar theories. Taking the solution (which can of revolution. But Halley was sufficiently ac- be expressed by elliptic terms, and terms dependquainted with the general theory of perturbation, ing upon the disturbing force

Longitude of Perihelion
Long. of Ascending Node

Inclination of the Orbit
Perihelion distance
Direction of Motion..

1531.

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to know, or at least to surmise, that the influence sign of integration), he rejects everything of the planets might be such as to cause such a depending on the square of the disturbing difference. He shrewdly remarked that the in- force, and transforms the expressions into others fluence of Jupiter on Saturn was capable of in terms of the eccentric anomaly. He a so varying its period 13 days, and that under certain employs, for a time, the same expression as that circumstances this variation might amount to a in his lunar theory, transformed in a similar month. Halley's memorable prediction is con- manner. Notwithstanding, for a part of the tained in the following words: "Nothing seems orbit extending through 1809 of eccentric to contradict this my opinion, except the in- anomaly, Clairaut was obliged to employ the IN N every age of the world, and in every region equality of the periodic revolutions, which in- method of quadratures. We do not propose to of it, there has been noticed among the fixed equality is not so great neither, as that it may follow Clairaut throughout his elaborate invesand regular constellations, a class of phenomena of Saturn is so disturbed by the rest of the not be owing to physical causes; for the motion tigation; the subject of cometary perturbation is a fertile one, and at no very distant epoch, with that has arrested the wandering attention of the planets, especially Jupiter, that the periodic time the permission of the Editor, may be treated uninterested spectator, as much by the brilliancy of that planet is uncertain for some whole days separately. as by the irregularity of its appearance. To this together. How much more, therefore, will a phenomenon has been applied the term "comet comet be subject to such like errors, which rises almost four times higher than Saturn, and whose from the Greek Koμeres, as the ancients imagined velocity, though increased but a very little, would a resemblance between the train of light that be sufficient to change its orbit from an elliptical occasionally accompanies this phenomenon and to a parabolical one? This, moreover, confirm dishevelled hair. In days of superstition and my opinion of its being the same comet that ir astrology, the sight of a comet was sufficient to the year 1456, in the summer time, was seen passing retrograde, between the earth and the awaken a feeling of terror and a sense of coming sun, much after the same manner; which, though evil, but to the astronomer of the present day, its nobody made observations upon it, yet, from its appearance excites a sensation of triumph and of period and the manner of its transit, pride. However terrific their appearance, how-think different from those I have just now menever startling their brilliancy, they possess notioned. Hence I dare venture to foretell that it

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The whole labour of this important investigation was borne by Clairant, Lalande, and a lady by the name of Madame Lepaute, who appears to have rendered very material assistance. Lalonde in his "Theorie du Mouvement des Comètes," has given us a graphic account of the labour involved. During six months," he remarks, we calculated from morning till night, sometimes even at meals, the consequence of which was that I contracted an illness, which banged my constitution for the remainder of my life. The assistance rendered by Madame Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society," vol. 4.

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Lepante was such, that without it we never of time in the perihelion passage would not have
wild have dared to have undertaken this enormous amounted to more than thirteen, instead of thirty
labour, where it was necessary to calculate for days.
every degree, and for 150 years, the distance
and force of each of the two planets (Jupiter and
Saturn) with respect to the Comet."

THE EAR-ITS USES AND ABUSES.
BY DR. USSHER.
(Concluded from page 30.)

WE

On the 14th of November, 1758, Clairant announced to the French Academy of Sciences, the memorable conclusion that was the result of: such enormous labour. E are all familiar with the fact that sound He declared that the effect of Jupiter, would be to delay the perihelion comes better through water; a musical passage by the enormous amount of 518 days, box placed on a tumber of water sounds far louder and that Saturn would further cause it to be re-than on a table. We doctors use the stethoscope, tarded by 100 days, the whole effect would be or chest tube, with our patients because it contherefore about 20 months, and Clairaut fixed ducts to the ear sounds that we would otherwise the perihelion passage to take place on the 13th of April, 1759. Great curiosity prevailed as the be in ignorance of. The smitten tuning fork time approached, and intense interest was excited gives a feeble sound until it is placed on a solid in the hope of the verification of the prediction. body; what, then, more probable that these mysAll doubt as to the identity of the comet with terious parts of the ear, of which we know but previous apparitions was removed, so far as the little, aid in multiplying sounds, and may, by disscientific world was concerned, but some appre eased conditions of body, be altered, giving us the hension was felt lest circumstances should be unfavourable to a perception of the phenomenon. well-known deafness of the typhus fever, or the "We cannot doubt," observed Lalande, in 1757, exalted hearing of cerebral conditions? "that it will return: and even if astronomers should In molluscs, or the the mussel tribe, in annelids (leech tribe), and also in cephalopods (or the cuttle light, and its great distance, perhaps even bad fish tribe) the granular vibratory bodies above weather, may keep it from our view, but the public spoken of are found. Insects, moreover, says will find it difficult to believe us; they will put Carpenter, are capable of attracting each other by this discovery which has done so much honour the noises they make, although the organs of to modern philosophy, among the number of pre-hearing cannot be discovered, and the strong tions spring up again in the colleges, contempt among the ignorant, terror among the people, and seventy-six years will elapse, before there will be another opportunity of removing all doubt."

not see it, they will not be the less persuaded of its return. They know that the faintness of its

dictions made at hazard. We shall see disserta

Lalande's fears were not realised. Om Christ mas Day in the year 1758, a farmer and amateur astronomer, named Palitzch, living near Dresden, first perceived the comet in a telescope of eight feet focal length, aided by his powerful sight. It has been said that Palitzch perceived the comet with his naked eye,, at a time when it was invisible to every European astronomer, assisted by their telescopes, but the Baron de Zach has corrected this error, and appears to have been per sonally acquainted with this diligent observer of the heavens. Palitzch saw the comet again on the 26th of December; and on the 28th of December it was detected by Dr. Hoffmann, Messier, "the comet ferret" as he has been styled, had been looking out for the comet for two and a half years previously, instigated by Delisle, who was then the director of the Paris Observatory, but notwithstanding his long and diligent search he was one of the last to detect it, owing to the weather being unfavourable for observation. Messier detected the comet on the 21st of January in the following year, and observed it regular y for the next three weeks ensuing. Delisle would not allow Messier to give notice to the astronomers of that city, that the long expected body was in sight, and he remained the only observer before the comet was lost in the sun's rays. Such a discreditable and selfish. con cealment of an interesting discovery, is not likely to sully again the annals of astronomy. Some members of the French Academy looked upon Messier's observations, when published as forgeries but his name stood too high for such imputations to last long, and the positions were soon received as authentic, and have beer of great service in correcting the orbit of the comet at the last

assiduons, at length entered the University, obtained his degree, and became no longer the "idler about town," but one of God's ministers, and the deepest pang that good man ever felt was a retrospect of the misspent past. The pernicious example of such an idler is baneful to hundreds, his influence, like that of the good, is far and wide. Can you or I tell the good that a single number of the ENGLISH MECHANIC can accomplish -No! but I tell you what we can do our best to help. A kind word or look may keep some one within the path of duty, and men will be forced to say, "Here is an influence at work that end of the path giving us such light and comfort is not of earth, and there is a prospect at the that our hearts are warmed, and open to the wayworn and toil crossed at our side." We think only of the help from hand to hand, and if the recipent is surprised that good comes without either the world is not so, and the gift is God-sent. motive or reward, he believes, that the way of

Now let us have a word or two about the abuses

of the ear. Truly it has been a long-suffering organ. The armamentarium medicum that old ladies had in reserve was fearful! Each possessed her peculiar "leperons distilment," which, prothat she carried her medications in a girdle near ducible at a moment's notice, led to the supposition of access. First in the armoury came a pewter syringe, large enough to shoot a fly, and which boys used to look upon as a special perquisite, a weapon of surprise for their sisters in every nook good nor harm, unless you pricked the unlucky and corner. These spray producers did neither wight in his ear-passage with the point of the pewter and startled him into an attitude of combativeness. Worse, far worse, was in store for you if your ear ached. Laudanum, one of the least offensive of the compounds, hot oil and laudanum, oil of cloves, vinegar and cayenne pepper, cloves of garlic, and roasted onion, may be taken as samples; in fact, anything the druggist recommended was safe to have a trial. Leeches, tartar emetic ointment, savin ointment, were mild agents, and traceable, as a surety, to these female methen runnings from the ear were common enough, diciners and their male coadjutors, whose only authority was the recipe book (that valuable relic), or the equally incontrovertible authority comprehended in the ipse dixit of have been rank heresy t› reject. More fashionable your grandmother, or her dame, which it would days arrived, and people, ashamed of folly, coated it with mystery. Black wool was inserted, procured possibly for gold, and cut by a "cuaning woman "in the mysterious light of the young midway "between the horn and the leg." Fairies moon, from the head of a two-year-old ram, were perhaps invoked for its safe keeping, the fortunate possessor withdrew it with an air of solemnity, which seemed to say: You do not know its virtues" leastways they were 'id," like the money of Tenneyson's Northern Farmer, whose scion committed the awful wrong of being "sweet upo' parson's lass." If you had the temerity to ask the sheepish owner what the product was, there was euch a hemming and hawing, preceeding the "Don't know" (which in plain unvarnished English was a lie) that the fool blushed to the eyes, and anywhere that blushes could go. On another occasion you found some of your respected relations with their heads encased in a pillow-shaped concern, looking uncommonly wet and uncomfortable, not taking their ease for certain in this pillow of home-grown camomiles and bruised poppy head, heightened into activity by a little medication poured near the seat of pain, "but it didn't do no good," and the light of our grandmother (God bless her!) died out in a proper way, and we are forced by way of epitaph, to say, "They did their best, angels could do no more.', Now people are wiser, they respect the argumentum ad hominem, but they keep it at a respectful distance. Hardly anyone in those days had seen the drum of the ear in the living, although some must have been ac uated by curiosity. The silver speculum was not divined, or the lamp of Avery, or the contrivance of Brunton, means for casting has not made it for himself. I remember once the glowing beam into the dark recess. Illuminameeting with a very excellent man, who, in early tion then was confined to the monks, but in these life, up to two or five-and-twenty, had been days of endoscopes, laryngoscopes, and ophthal living a useless existence, "lying on his oars." moscopes, wo can see in the living what our He had the ability, as the result proved, but pre- fathers little dreamt of, and in a generation ferred to bury his talent in the earth. A true or so to come the readers of the existing friend one day accosted him and said, "How long serials will think us as great fools as we are you going to continue this kind of existence, sometimes consider our respected ancestors: do you ever intend to be in earnest?" The-who, however, manag d to live longer, and kept young mau felt the rebuke just; and went home. better order, when life was less sacred than now, He that day to k to his Latin grammar, became and crime had a show of modesty.

analogy of the case leads almost to certainty, although demonstration may be impossible. A special organ in spiders has not been discovered, but the story of the imprisoned c er quoted gives no doubt on that score. In man the organ of hearing is amplified into a perfect ear, and as we go down the scale of creation all manner of modifications are found; each and all apportioned by a beneficent Creator to the diverse existence of the being. The nervous supply of the ear is one of the mighty problems that baffle the perseverance of anatomists, nor can the microscope invade the subtile mystery. The auditory nerve is connected and interlaced with so many others, that compound or complex actions arise which we recognise only in their results, but cannot unravel. Man has wearied himself over the problem, and is apparently as far as ever from the solution; the day may arrive when the Creator will permit light to penetrate the mystery of brain action, and the convolutions of grey and white may unfold their meaning, but the territory of mind and matter as it exists in our brain-case, seems to be beyond man's reach; the one may be shattered, the other spoiled, and we become mere examples of animal life, wrecked and helpless, on the shores of Time. A slight blow, a terrible shock, may send the throne of man, his ever-busy brain, reeling in the dust, and small may be the interval between the kingly state of a Nebuchadnezzar and the grovellings of lowest life. Such is often, aye, I might say an everyday result, of grasping and unsated ambition, or the reckless victim of gaiety, or the worse slave of lust, whether of the world, the eye, the flesh, or the pride of life; powers sacrificed, alienation of useful faculties, talents thrown away, souls perilled, if not lost. These are the means and ways by which our lunatic asylums are filled-vessels, I might compare A discussion of these observations would show them to, freighted for the green hills far away, that the perihelion passage took place on the 12th unsatisfied with the daily manna of a blessed conof March, just one month previous to the date eutment, fretting their lives against a cage of fixed by Clairaut, but we should have said that their own making, dying of unrest, deprived even at the time Clairant made his prediction to the of the stimulus of a purpose, they have their use, French Academy, he pointed out, that, having but it is as beacons to warn the thoughtful among been pressed for time he had neglected various the crowd not to speed, for the very life of them, small quantities, depending upon the perturba-after illusions and shadows that may be touched tions of the Earth, Mars, &c., which might but never grasped. Why is it that so many fail exercise an influence one way or the other, to the in life? Because they are not in earnest. You amount of a month, so that his prediction really rarely see a man with any measure of success who was within the limit of time he had allowed him self, and if we consider that the received values of Jupiter and Saturn were very much in error, and that the existence of Uranus and Neptune was not even su-pected, we must allow very great praise to the accuracy to which Clairaut was able to bring his investigation. Laplace has shown that if the mass of Saturn had been as well known to Clairaut, as it was in his time, the error

return.

"Hind on Comets."

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it may justly be considered the most complete fortunate very few who can afford such costly
amateur lathe in existence. It is capable, we apparatus, or as illustrating the perfection to
believe, of efficiently performing all, or very which the lathe can be advanced, but also as
in the lathe; and this not by means of ting any one of the purposes of which this lathe
makeshifts, but through mechanism which has will do all.
been carefully considered with a view to simpli-
city with efficiency, and constructed throughout
regardless of expense.

WE ilustrate a very Esq., of Saltaire, nearly all the operations that can be accomplished guides in constructing any apparatus for ex-en

A MOST EFFICIENT LATHE. E illustrate a very complete amateur lathe, near Bradford, who kindly furnished us with some very fine photographs of it, from which our illustrations have been engraved. This lathe was designed for Mr. S.lt by Mr. Smith, of Jersey, It was chiefly made at Saltaire, but was finished by a London maker. As, with its apparatus, it A lathe of this sort necessarily contains many has cost, we believe, upwards of £1500, we think | ingenuities which are not only interesting to the

The crank and treadle are much the same as those in ordinary use; but the crankshaft also carries a pair of pulleys, one fast and the other loose, for taking a flat belt proceeding from some source of motive power. Mr. Salt, we believe, has

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