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(2.) How many yards of cloth may be bought for £5 103. if by which hydrogen and carbonic oxide are produced. These 2 yards cost 5s. 4d.? (C. P.)

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(5) Multiply

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of which is £1 13s. (C.P.)

(C-P.)

82 by 3 of 24 19 (6) Redace 2 of half a guinea to the fraction of £1 15s. (C.P.)

(7.) A house is let at 50 guineas a year, what amount is due for 10 weeks 3 days? (C.P.)

(8) Three plum cakes of equal size are divided equally between seven boys, and two of them divide their shares equally with four other boys, one of whom gives his share to three other boys, who divide it equally. What fraction of a plum-cake is received by each boy of the first group of seven, of the second group of four, and of the third group of three? If three boys, one from each group, join their portions and share them equally, what fraction of a plum cake will each

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gases serve very well for heating the retorts, but have scarcely
any illuminating power. The writer, however, insists" that
poudrette coke surcharged with ordure will give a highly
luminous gas." a statement we shall believe when we see the
gas flame. Mr. Hickey should persuade the Hindoos to adopt
his system of cremation along with their ordure, and then he
would get an illuminating gas, for, as Sir Thomas Browne says
or quotes in his Urn Burial, "from animals are drawn good
burning lights." Mr. Hickey has certainly not solved the
sewage difficulty.

The properties of pure water we must believe are at present
very little understood. According to M. Becquerel distilled
water acts on all metals, even gold and platinum, and it
seems likely that absolutely pure H2O may really be a very
energetic substance.

We have noticed before some processes devised by M. Puscher for giving colours to metals. Finding more precise details we return to the subject, since the invention is likely to interest some of our readers. The process consists, as we have said, in producing a layer of sulphide on the surface of a thickness which must be varied according to the colour desired. Thus on brass, according as this layer of sulphides is varied, golden yellow, copper, red, crimson, blue, light blue, or reddish blue shades can be obtained. The colours, ration by which most of these effects are given consists of a moreover, are very solid, and will take a polish. The prepasolution of 45grms. of hyposulphite of soda and 15grms. of of the three have? (C.P.) acetate of lead in a litre of water. When this solution is heated it decomposes, and sulphide of lead is formed. The (9.) Reduce of of a guinea to the fraction of half a object to be coloured, therefore, has only to be immersed in the solution maintained at a temperature from 1900 to 2120 Fal., in order to be coated with the sulphide in shades of sovereign. (C.P.) colour varying with the duration of the immersion. A few experiments will teach the exact time required to produce the shade. Iron is always blue, zinc receives a bronze shade, copper will take the colours named above except the golden yellow. When in the above solution, sulphate of copper is of a crown, and add substituted for acetate of lead, brass and imitation gold take first a beautiful red colour, then a green, and finally a rich brown. Marbled effects can by produced by first covering a brass object with a lead solution thickened with gum tragacanth, drying at 2129, and afterwards introducing it into the hyposulphite bath. This last we may say keeps unchanged when cold, and can be used many times over.

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N. B. In the latter of these two, simply find the fraction within the brackets, then multiply this result by the just without the brackets.

(13.) Express £1 6s. 44d. + of a farthing as a fraction

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As regards this solution of acetate of lead and hyposulphite or soda we may say, although Puscher does not mention it, that it constitutes a very good hair dye, slow of course, but harmless.

ozone in the air is sufficient to cause these substances to

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[We do not hold ourselves responsible for the opinions of our correspondents. The EDITOR respectfully requests that all communications should be drawn up as briefly as possible.]

All communications should be addressed to the EDITOR of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, 31, Tavistockstreet, Covent Garden, W.C.

All cheques and Post Office Orders to be made payable to J. PASSMORE EDWARDS.

I would have every one write what he knows, and as much as he knows, but no more; and that not in this only, but in all other subjects: For such a persou may have some particular knowledge and experience of the nature of such a person or such a fountain, that, as to other things, knows no more than what everybody does, and yet to keep a clutter with whole body of physicks: a vice from whence great inthis little pittance of his, will undertake to write the conveniences derive their original. - Montaigne's

Essays,

HAWKINS'S MUSICAL NOTATION. of this notation, which seems to have excited some SIR-As I have been requested to send an example interest among such of your musical readers who prefer simplicity to complexity, I will shortly send a Tremolo" where he can purchase music printed on familiar melody,written in it, I am unable to inform this system. More than twenty years ago, I borrowed Hawkins's instruction book (the only copy he possessed), and until you printed the common chord of Hawkins's instruction book is in the British Museum, C. I never again saw a single bar in print. Probably and perhaps a copy may be in the stock of some dealer in old and forgotten music. 1 should be very glad to purchase a copy myself.

the lines of the staff in any position which liketh him I need hardly inform "Tremolo," that he may put best; Hawkins wrote them perpendicular, and if I remember correctly, read the notes from the bottom upward, just as I have illustrated the system. They may of course be written from top to bottom, or hori zontally, from left to right, just as our common notation is; I think this the preferable way, but I may be prejudiced from habit in favour of what is familiar to were used to it. As Charles Dickens would say, “It's nese method of reading just as good as our own, if we all along of our broughtens up." I don't remember my old friend mentioning why he placed his staff perpendicular but I have no doubt he could have stated why he did so, for he was pre-eminently a man who for every faith within him.-N. B.-Some of those could give a reason-satisfactory to himself at leastfaiths were rather odd, to say the least of them, but for all that he was "a jolly good fellow."

A very curious and important fact-if, indeed, it is a fact-me, for after all we might find the Persian or the Japa-
is mentioned by M. Jouglet, who states that nitro-glycerine
and dynamite explode in contact with ozone. Ozone, as our
readers are well aware, is only known in the diluted state,
and it is highly important to ascertain what proportion of
explode. Since they are commonly employed in situations
(quarries in the open country, for example) where, according to
the meteorologists, ozone is tolerably certain to be found in
the air, we must, uniess M. Jouglet is contradicted, look on
the use of dynamite even as highly dangerous. If the truth
of the statement be established, we have explained the cause
of some explosions which have been called ** spontaneous."

A very good suggestion for an air filter equally applicable
for a ventilator or a respirator is made by M. Woestyn, who
proposes to place in a ventilating shaft a bag of asbestos.
This, like cotton, will arrest auy solid particles floating in the
air, and when much soiled the asbetos can be removed and
made white hot, by which all organic matters will be
16+1 (C.P.) destroyed, and it may then be put back in the shaft again.
For respirators asbetos would be far preferable to the cotton
wool proposed by Dr. Tyndall. It would not hold moisture
like the wool, and would at the same time be most efficacious
as a filter, and made so that the asbetos could be easily
removed to be burnt and put back again, they might come
into use and be highly recommended. There would be no
obvious difficulties in the way of effectually filtering the air
admitted to a large building, but we agree with M. Dumas in
considering that the suggestion of M. Woestyn is worthy of

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WE have at last some information on the method pursued in India to make gas from sewage, a matter which excited a good deal of attention some months ago, and produced some wonderful speculations from writers in the daily press. In noticing the subject at the time, we said that "the only conceivable mode of obtaining gas from such a material as solid excrement, is by distilling it in a retort just as we do coal," and such, we see by a letter in the Chemical News from Mr. Hickey, C.E.. of Calcutta, is the method actually pursued. The writer calls his system "a system of conservancy." It is really a system of wanton waste, as bad as our London system. He destroys all the manurial properties of the filth and gets only a little gas, which can be good for nothing but heating his furnaces to effect the destruction. The plan of

serious attention.

Manganese, we fear, will never be a cheap metal, and
alone would seem to be susceptible of no useful application;
but we learn from the researches of M. Valenciennes that it
forms very beautiful and useful alloys with copper. One in
particular, containing only 15 per cent. of manganese, is
almost white, and in many of its properties greatly resembles
steel.
Other compounds, we are told, form superb bronzes.
How far these may be capable of replacing our ordinary
bronze it would be premature to speculate in the present
undeveloped state of the industry of manganese. The same
metallurgist we have mentioned above has procured pure
cobalt, which seems to be a metal that may some day be
usefully applied.

People sometimes do odd things and arrive at strange and
unexpected results. What M. Sidot was driving at when he
carbonised wood in the vapour of sulphide of carbon we
cannot imagine, but it ended in obtaining charcoal, which
a bell turned in wood, carbonised it in the same way, and has
when struck is as sonorous as a piece of metal. He then got
an instrument which gives a sound like that of a silver bell.
The carbonisation is only superficial, and possibly the bell
mey not be very brittle, as it certainly would be if it were
complete. Besides sulphide of carbon, the author calcined
Wood in the vapour of wood spirit, and so obtained a fibrous
coke of silky whiteness. This is a very curious result; white
coke is a novelty, and it would be interesting to know for
nizing temperature in the vapour of wood spirit.-Mecha-
certain what does happen when wood is heated to a carbo-
nic's Magazine.

PHOTOGRAPHY IN BOTANY.-To illustrate

venation and the nature of the surface of foliage, pho-
tography may be turned to good account -far more
than is now commonly thought of. A correspondent
of the American Naturalist says he has seen a photo-
graph from a specimen of one of the coriaceous-leaved
oaks of the Dutch Indies which was truly wonderful
in its rendering.

To one and all I beg to say, that I am quite unable to describe Hawkins's notation more lucidly than I have done, so I take the liberty of advising "Flautist," page 304, to mark, on paper, learn, and inwardly digest (not the paper), but the system, as I have set it forth, not doubting that so astute an ignoramus as he evidently is, will require no further edification than what that process and a little thought on the subject, will afford him. The labour can hardly be great, for" Tremolo" has succeeded in the attempt at the first trial, a thing which seldom occurs in works of great difficulty.

How" One and All" can think the tonic sol fa notation simpler than Hawkins's, rather surprises me. It is true, only one sign viz. a letter, is needed for each sound of the diatonic scale, but the system is not convenient for frequent changes of key, and the notes require adjuncts to indicate their temporal value. This is expressed in Hawkins' by varying the length (only) of the note itself a pretty yet conclusive proof, which is the least complex of the two. THE HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH.

"F.R.A.S." AND THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC.
SIR,-I cannot help thinking that "F.R.A.S." is
extremely unfortunate in his endeavour to fasten the
duty of recomputing the tables of Jupiter's satellites
on
one of our national scientific establishments.
"W. E. P." has denied the propriety of selecting the
Nautical Almanac office as the proper place for com-
putations of this nature, and F.R.A.S." cordially
agrees with him, and shifts the responsibility on to
the Royal Observatory, which, I think, is still more
inappropriate, as it must be universally admitted that
the object for which an observatory is established and
maintained is to make observations, or to give the
extremely anxious to have new tables computed, that
them.
means of forming tables, but not to actually calculate
But I should advise, since "F.R.A.S." is so
he mention the subject to his friend the Astronomer
Royal, who, I think I may venture to say, will con-
vince him that the Royal Obseruatory is not the place
for corducting calculations of such a nature.

never shown itself ready in the laborious work of
It must be admitted with pain that this country has
computing tables of planets, &c.; and every ephe-
is calculated from tables compiled by foreigners; and
meris that is provided by the Nautical Almanac Office
it seems probable that the discussion of the elements
of the Jovian system will be left to some distinguished
Continental astronomer, unless "F.R.A.S." is willing
to undertake the labour himself, and so render him-
self famous even among others than the readers of
your excellent periodical.
OMICRON.

ASTRONOMICAL.

SIR, Allow me to tender my sincere thanks to "F.R.A.S." for his reply of the 18th ult. Although I

believe I am a fair amateur astronomer, yet it is
only lately I have been a practical observer, so am
not a fair judge of what is in truth a test for a good
speculum.
For instance, theoretically a very fine specimen of
5 in. aperture should divide a double but 77" apart,
and give a glimpse of a "come" of 12-6 standard
magnitude. Still there may te doubless but apart
and 12 mag. "comes that the finest 6in. could not
master, rendering tests apparently easy practically
extremely severe. Ergo, "F.R.A.Š." will understand
why doubles, &c., that in truth may be no est, figure
in this list.

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32 Orionis, Orionis and Boötes, again, uumistakably divided, each being tried three times.

Bootes, and y' Andromeda, both elongated, but was unable to decide as to the notching of the latter, the definition was not steady.

35 Equulel, 128 Pr Pisces, 4 Lyncis, and 121 Pxx Ursa Major, all clearly divided-the third hardest, and I can hardly think it can be but 14 apart; it seems nearly 1" apart only.

24 Lyncis. (The name is almost illegible, so I am not aware whether it is 24 or 34.) The first star on "F.R.A.S.'s" list I have not the R.A. of, neither have I it from Struve's catalogue.

Equulei. I always understood this to be a triple of 13 and 8" apart, so sometime back tried to divide the closer, as I fancied, of the two, after dividing the wider, but did not succeed, the altitude being low. I noticed, though, a star about 15" to the right of it and below. Mr. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., was my authority.

14 Lyncis, 145 Leonis. Cancri, and Cygni. Readily elongated all, strongly notched the first, plainly the second, and to my surprise, gave a clear and distinct pair of discs to Cancri (I divided the first with full aperture). 8 Cygni, was almost, if not quite divided; showed a splendid pair of discs. With regard to light on nights when the large mirror, with an aperture of just over in., picks up the smallest" comes" to y Orionis, 178 Pxx Delphini, 15 Monacerotis (Nu) Ceti, and Sagittarii, the smaller does the same with nearly im. Jess aperture; with perseverance the smaller aperture) picks up the "comes" to a Lyra, Ceti, Virginis, y Orionis, Cancri, and 2 Orionis. It easily picks up the triple o2 (Omicron) Cygni, but I have been almost sure I have seen a fourth, but I find that Smyth and Webb put it down as triple.

which he calls "incomprehensible," arises from his
own vague way of expressing himself, as I am quite
certain that any ordinary intellect would be as well
able to comprehend what is meant by the "centre of a
journal " as by the "centre of an invention." Would
Mr. Evans explain the following sentences in his first
letter? "All the centres are equal in length and
line; it will then be seen that the stones can be hung
at 5in. or 10in., or any intermediate distance," &c.
Does he mean that because the "centres are equal,"
&c., that therefore the stones can be hung as stated?
I may here state that the "globe-head" has nearly
superseded the "universal joint" in all the large mills
in Ireland.

J. SHARPE.

P.S.-In a recent letter of mine (quoted by Mr. Evans on p. 11) there is a clerical error. For “foci " read "ends."

SIR, As the subject in question is one in which we are all interested more or less, may I be permitted to make a few remarks thereupon? First, I would respectfully ask Mr. R. R. Smith if we are to understand him to say that the cross-wind in his bedstone was the cause of the trouble he had with the neck of his spindle?

eight rows of spikes or teeth, and making 300 to 400 revolutions per minute; there are also two or three rows more of the same kind of teeth, fastened to the cover of the cylinder, and so arranged as to allow the cylinder teeth, when revolving, to pass between them, thus opening the cotton and throwing down the seeds and dirt to the bottom, where there is a grid for the cotton to strike against, and so free itself from the dirt, which passes through the bars of the grid, the cotton is then passed on to the machine described by "Gitche Manito."

I think it would be an advantage to the MECFANIC, if some person would give a description of the machines and processes of the cotton manufacture, for your paper has a large circulation in the district of Stockport, and yet it scarcely ever contains a scrap of matter relating to its staple trade. For myself I shall be glad at any time to answer to the best of my ability any question appertaining to this branch of our industry. FACTORY LAD.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

SIR,-I must apologise for not answering "Photo" before this, on the subject of "Toning," but the fact is, I did not receive my ENGLISH MECHANIC, as it went down on board the unfortunate steamer Normandy.

And, secondly, with all deference to his opinion, I beg leave to differ with his theory of millstone balance. In answer to "Cumberland Jowhn," he says, "Put the stone in running balance, and the long I presume that "Photo" wants to tone a transspindle will make the stone hang steadier." Will it do so? I trow not. The long spindle will cause the parent positive, not negative. He may have been parstone to hang more sluggish, and the consequent drag tially led to say negative through my saying so in my on the face will cause the spindle to vibrate, on ac- last. I should have said positive. Now arises anoneck, and even the toe and driving gear. Let "C. J." count of its inordinate length, to the detriment of the ther question. Is the querist going to make sme transparencies? If so, as they of course will be done cut his spindle so as to bring his bearings within the at home, he can spare more time, and with that idea, line of gravity. The balance will become thereby more let him develop with pyro, instead of iron, giving sensitive when the stone is at its proper velocity. And about three times the length of exposure. This geneif the case were mine I would do away with the cross-rally gives a warm tone and pleasing-like a light bar, which is not the best arrangement, on account of chocolate. Another way is to develop with iron; do not the excessive friction of the driver faces, which are intensify unless very thin, and after fixing pour over also not unfrequently out of line with the centre a dilute solution of chl. gold. This will tone rapidly And I dare venture to predict that he would have no mercury added to the gold solution is good, but for bearing, and replace it with a good Universal Rynot. and pleasantly. In some cases a grain of bichlor. further trouble with the neck, and superior work my own working I dispense with mercury, unless for would be the result. THOS. EVANS. negatives I only want to use once or twice. "Photo" must remember that in all cases a transparency must be fully exposed, certainly rather over than under, in order to get full detail. I suppose that he knows how to mount them either for the stereoscope or screen? If not I will tell him at a future time.

Yay I ask "Photo" to be a little more explicit. What sort of house does he mean? Dark room, or studio, or workshop?

SHODDY MANUFACTURE. SIR,-A "willey," a "willew," a "devil" are only different names for the same thing, and is not a shoddy machine, nor would it answer for one. A willow is the first machine that wool (not cotton) passes through for the purpose of opening the wool aud knocking out the dye-stuff. Shoddy does not require this operation, and therefore does not go into the willey, but into the Then he says, "He sometimes finds a ring, or more "teazer." A shoddy machine consists merely of a than one solarised place." 31 Ah! I know what that drum or cylinder about 43ft. dia. by 20in. wide (work- is. I've had it all before now. Listen. These rings the developer on that portion of the plate where these spots are afterwards produced.

Orionis, 5th and 6th star, easily seen. Cau "F.B.A.S." tell me the smallest aperture it is possible to see the 6 with? Mr. Cooke tells me a 31 of his showed them; and in Guilleman's Heavens I also find it so stated.

There is one point in "F.R. A.S.'s" letter I cannot ing in a frame similar to a large grinding-stone), and (transparent spots of course) are caused by pouring

make out. He speaks as though a 2ft. mirror were necessary to see the satellites of Uranus. According to Arago, an 18in. metallic mirror is amply large enough, while their exact period of revolution was determined by an 11in. refractor. Moreover, I have once or twice thought I glimpsed them in a 10in. with Browning's mirror used as an Herschellian, or front viewed telescope. Having for the last month been watching Uranus, with two friends, I have paid a little attention to it, and one of my friends' 9in. refractor, I am informed, shows traces of the largest satellite. However there is a capital test as to the capabilities of a telescope to see them. Between 8 and 32 Capricorni is a close double, under 3" apart, and of 17 mag. each. Any telescope that with a power of 500 will clearly divide this double is capable of picking up the two largest satellites, number 3 and 4. And I may remark my 10 just divides them with a power of 700, while an 11in. Mery will divide them cleanly with

a power of 300.

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a pair of fluted rollers. The cylinder is made with two metal drum rings, covered with inch thick timber, on which are screwed or bolted elm lags, about 1in. thick, and any convenient breadth. These lags are Do not pour the developer on one spot. Sweep it divided into spaces about in. asunder, and the teeth gently over the plate, at the same time tilting the are placed alternately in each row. They are steel, plate by a twist of the wrist so that the developer may and may be any shape-either round, square, or octa-pass over the whole. Solarised spots must of course be caused by actinic light (white light) touching the gonal. They are about in. thick at the butt, and negative. Perhaps a small hole in the back or in the camera itself, or it may be some organic substance taper to a point. They project about 13in. beyond the fallen and so piled up, and reduced the silver during timber, and are generally kept in enough from the end exposure. In all such cases care must be taken to try of the lag to admit of a stout in, hoop being driven back (dark slide). If that is light-tight try the caand ascertain where the fault lies. First look at your on, which keeps the lags from flying off in case any of the screws should break. When the cylinder is mera. If all right, look to the windows of your dark placed in its bearings, a rest should be made fast on room, put out of the way all organic matter well the frame, and near enough to the cylinder just to clean your glasses (away from the dark room), and allow the teeth to pass, and then, with a piece of also see that your dark slide is clean and works freely. coarse grindstone, grind all the teeth to an equal As it is very unlikely that it is caused by the lens unheight. While this is doing, the cylinder should be less that is struck direct by the sun, why he need not driven the reverse way to the way it is to work. trouble himself about that part of the furniture. Howburr produced on the top of the teeth by this opera-ever, the best shade for the lens is an instantaneous ?tion is the principal feature in the machine's effective- shutter. If he wants to know how to make one, with ness. After the machine has worked some time, the your permission, Mr. Editor, I will show him how I inade mine. burr will get on the opposite side of the teeth. The cylinder should then be reversed in the frame. The

Will "Omicron "try as a test 2 Bcötes, 20 Draconis. y Corona Borealis, y Equulei, w Leonis, and + Aquaril

a URSE MINORIS.

QUESTIONS FOR MILLERS. SIR-I should be very sorry to strive to deprive Mr. Evans of the credit of being the inventor of the universal joint, but I believe it is a universal fact that Hood invented it long before Mr. E. was born. The only portion of it as applied to driving mill stones that he can lay any claim to is the outward ring. which he supposes originated with himself; but it is quite a common method here of having the stones built round a metal ring for the same purpose, which has the advantage of not occupying any portion of the eye of the stone, as Mr. E.'s does. I have metal boxes let into the eye of my stones for the bearings to "slide in," which I consider an improvement on Mr. E. "outward ring," as there is then no necessity for making one of the rings oval. When I read Mr. E's description of his invention I thought he only referred to the "oval ring," or I should not have noticed it at all, because I did not consider the outward ring" an improvement, but quite the reverse, as the sliding steps are common at Templeogue, while the oval ring is confined to myself; and I now see that our motives for adopting the oval shape are quite differeut, as he had to resort to it in order to have the four journals the same distance from the centre, which is not necessary for the purpose of making a "true universal joint." I have seen a hole drilled through the "cock-head "of a spindle near the top, and a round pin driven in, leaving enough of it projecting on both sides of the spindle for the outward ring to rest on, and it worked as free as if it were the full size of the outward ring. But now, Sir, before giving Mr. Evans the explanation he wants relative to the sentence which appears to him "incomprehensible"-namely, that "the centres of all the journals are in the same (vertical) circle"-I think it necessary to refer to his former communication, where he says that "all the centres are equal in length and line," and to ask him what he means by "centres?" In his last letter he calls them "the centres of his invention," from which I conclude that the difficulty he experienced in reconciling the two statements

The

The want of silver deposit on the lower parts of the face I think I can explain in a few words. "Photo" gets all his light to strike down on the sifter. Is it not so? If so, let him get a board and cover it with pure white paper, and place it at such an angle as to reflect the light on to the lower part of the sitter's face. I think he will find it all right then.

shaft or axis of the cylinder should be long enough to
have a driving pulley on each end, or to remove the
pulley from one end to the other. The cylinder,
when at work, should go at least 800 revolutions per
minute. Across the frame, and as close to the cylin-
der as possible, are two fluted rollers, through which
the rags pass. These rollers work in a fork at each "Photo," and others, are welcome to what I can tell
end. The top one is kept down by weighted levers. them, for I would not give a fig" for a man who
The smaller these rollers are in diameter, consistent hoards up "what he knows without telling others,
with strength, the better. The rags are laid thin andie., of course, if it's worth knowing. At the same
description).
even on a feed (which I suppose does not require auy time I hold with one of our correspondents, who says
The whole machine is cased in with a that people should write what they know, not what
provision to take out the shoddy from under the they think.
Mus.
machine, and a flue for ventilation. The rollers and
feed, which go very slow, are driven from the cylin
der shaft. The operation cannot be called "tearing,"
as the rags are
cracker of a whip.
fretted" away, something like the

CASE HARDENING
SIR,-There is an application for letters patent for
J. SHARPE, Templeogue, Co. Dublin.
case-hardening from a Mr. Armitage, of Kirkstall,
near Leeds. The following is something like the
CHANIC, I was struck with "Gitche Manito's" very The retort is put on the fire, and as soon as there is
SIR,-On reading this week's number of the ME-process-A quantity of pulverised prussiate of potass
is put into a wrought iron retort open at one end.
abrupt remarks on " Scrutator" and the shoddy manu-
facture, and it occurred to me that it would have heat enough communicated to make the mixture boil,
been better for "Gitche Manito," if he had remem-
the article to be hardened is plunged into the boiling
bered the time-honoured proverb "That they who mixture, and after it becomes red-hot it is taken out
live in glass houses," &c. Now, I have to charge and immersed in cold water, and the process is
"Gitche Manito" with the same fault that he lays on finished. What I want to know is, whether this is
"Scrutator," viz., that he has jumbled together the an old or a new process. If the former, then it would
willowing and scutching machines, as applied to be an injustice to every manufacturer that has to case-
cotton manufacture, and also with rushing headlong harden his iron by the prussiate of potass process; if
into print when he is not thoroughly acquainted with new, then the gentleman has a right to his invention.
his subject, and I would further impose upon his me-
mory the first few words of your quotation from Mon-
taigne's Essays: "I would have every one write what
he knows, and as much as he knows, but no more." I
see that he has consulted one of our best encyclopæ-
dias on the subject, but it would be best if answers
on subjects of manufactures could be given by prac-
tical persous.

Now the machine described by "Gitche Manito" is the scutcher. The willow is an entirely different machine, and is very often termed the devil; it consists of one large cylinder, containing about|

I for one recollect to have case-hardened by this process 26 years ago, with this exception, that the open end of the retort was sealed up with a luting of clay; and I have often practised this same process since that time. I should take it as a favour if those of your readers who are interested in case-hardening would give an opinion.

I was going to compliment you on the improved form of our MECHANIC, but it would be folly to do so on my part. The recent issue speaks volumes of itself, and will carry with it its own recommendation. ST. GEORGE.

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baking bread and pastry. This oven is shown without the stand and with an arched top. Fig. 15 represents the sliding cap or cover for oven 13 and 14, with the bar, knob, and hook. Fig. 16 represents the wire baking dish stand for ovens 13 and 14, standing on its legs as for baking, placed in a dish or plate; it will baking dish stand Fig. 12. Fig. 17 represents the baking plate for ovens, Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 18 represents the cirealar baking plate with pivot, to work in the centre hole of the baking plate. Fig. 17. Fig. 19 represents the toaster for chops or steaks before the fire; the band or bridge across the dish may be a fixture or made to slide on the dish. The hooks turn round separately, and the frame works round on a pivot. Fig. 20 represents the revolving gridiron, the reservoir is all round below the bars, and the bars are slightly arched and fluted, or otherwise the bars may be properly formed and attached to the reservoir itself, singly or otherwise, as a fixture, or fastened to end pieces and clipped fast to the reservoir by the two ends turned up and over of the under cross band or bar, into or upon which the handle is made to work the gridiron round upon. BON VIVANT.

this cap, or even without any hook or hooks at all. Fig. 6 represents a piece of sheet iron, the top or circle part with the edge turned down to hang on the front of the oven about half the way down or more if required, when the oven is used for baking bread or pastry, to keep the direct heat of the fire from scorchasing the bread. Fig. 7 represents the revolving grid-stand upright or in an inclined position, similar to ironed baking dish stand for the oven on its feet or legs as used for baking purposes. Fig. 8 represents the removable rods or cross bars with the hook, which goes across the hole or opening at the top of the oven, by which the meat is suspended and turned round as required. This figure belongs to the oven shown in Fig. 2, the lid, cap, or cover of which has a hole or opening in the centre, so that it covers up close all round the knob and the hook, and thus the mea: can be turned whether the cover is up or down, whether open or shut. These supports for the meat can be arranged to fit outside or inside of the top of the oven. Fig. 9 represents the baking plate of the oven with revolving plate working on the bottom plate. Fig. 10 represents the revolving adjusting oven stand, workiug on one centre screw, or they may be made to slip up and down in a socket or hollow tube, and fixed by a thumbscrew at the side of the socket or tube, or by a centre pin and hollow tube with a hole through each at desired distances, and kept in its place by a pin. Fig. 11 represents a roasting hook or hooks that can be used with or without the oven if desired. Fig. 12 represents the revolving gridironed oven baking dish stand in an upright or inclined position as it stands in an ordinary plate. Fig. 13 represents the oven in a square or nearly square form on a stand, but not The water gange, as may be seen by the declivity adjusting. In this shape the same kind of hole in given in the bottom part of the gauge, obviates the the centre at the top with a knob or a bar across and lodging of sand. Section 1 represents the internal hook, are used, as in Figs. 1 and 2, but instead of a cap appearance; a a is a plug valve and seat in the bottom or cover, as in Fig. 2, the hole is opened and closed part, which is provided with a flange to bolt it to the by a sliding cover working on a pivot, having a slotch boiler with four pins; this plug valve is fixed as seen or opening therein, so shaped as to clear the knob, on the end of a smooth 3-16th inch rod, which passes handle, or ring of the hook in or on the cross bar, and through a gland g, which can be packed at any time effectually close the opening on the top of the oven by drawing up the plug, which the pressure will keep when required. Instead of a revolving baking dish up tightly providing the cock n be shut, which cock is stand, in this oven the inventor sometimes makes a provided with a gland, as seen, and the working pin wire, or other gridironed baking stand, with three or has its tightening surface broken by ore passage four projections, legs, or catches, either to rest on the hole, the course being in through the bottom, and out rim of the dish, or to stand in the dish; this Fig. at the side; it is evident no sand can find rest in this shows the arrangement for baking. The baking plate gauge, but should there be any oily or other matter or plates revolve as in the D-shaped ovens, the only floating on the water, it may be blown out by turning difference being in the shape of the ovens. Some- the pin of the cock n until its course is equal with the times these square, or nearly square ovens, are made vent hole s, thus, by the pressure from the bottom, the with arched tops, and the sliding cap, cover, or knob, glass is cleared; it may also be seen that the gauge is arranged accordingly; and in some cases, accord-glass is protected and made tight by a shield, the same ing to the size of the oven, the whole, or nearly the as the Aston" gauge, differing only by being whole, of the top of the oven is made to lift up. Fig. lightened by the box nut m, which, when screwed 14 represents the same oven as Fig. 13, but with the down tight, is followed down on a little hemp and red baking stand and baking dish out, and arranged for lead, tight to prevent escape through the threads

STEVENS'S IMPROVEMENTS IN COOKING. SIR,-In No. 248 you illustrated an improved kitchen range. I send you herewith drawings and description of a new oven, lately patented by Mr. Ebenezer Stevens, of Margate, which seems capable of cooking almost anything. Fig. 1 represents the oven arranged for roasting, if all the space of the oven is required for that purpose, with the revolving baking plate and dish upon the bottom, showing the door at the back partly opened for basting or other purposes. The hook is turned as required by the knob which is made to turn round for turning the meat on the hook. An ordinary hook or hooks are used, or the hook or hooks shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 2 represents the oven also arranged for roasting, but with the knob or coned or flat cover, top or lid with a hole, circle, or slot formed in the cover thrown back, similar to the lid of a teapot, to enable the cook to observe more easily the progress of the cooking; this knob, cover, or lid in some cases is made as shown in Fig. 1, but in this case a straight or arched band, rod, or other support, is fixed across an opening at the top of the oven, having in the centre a hole or otherwise to which are attached hooks to revolve, so that the hollow cap, lid, or cover will lift up on a hinge or hinges to watch the roasting of the meat without being suspended to the bottom of the knob itself, and in other cases a slide cover is used instead of a cap or cover to place over the hook or hooks without any hinge, and in other cases a cap or cover without any hinge. Fig. 3 represents the oven as best arranged for baking meat with or without pudding and potatoes; the revolving baking plate is now upon the bottom side rims or Hanges of the oven, and the baking dish upon the baking plate, and the revolving baking dish stand in the dish, showing the door of the oven partly opened for turning the dish, and the knob or cover thrown back for looking into the oven to see the progress of the baking. Fig. 4 represents the oven as arranged for baking pies, puddings, pastry, bread, cakes, or any food required, with two revolving baking plates upon the side rims or flanges of the oven, and if it is required with a large oven, more than two shelves can be used, and each shelf or shelves can be used to suit the fire or the food to be baked. The cover or knob and door in this Fig. are both shut. Fig. 5 represents the oven baking dish with the revolving gridironed baking dish stand placed in the dish in an inclined position; it stands upon the rim, and the legs sideways, torming a small toaster without using the oven for chops and small articles of food. The small cap piece at the top with two hooks drops on and holds fast, and is added if required when the stand is used as a toaster, or an ordinary pot hook or pot hooks double at one end may be used with this stand without

WATER GAUGE AND GAUGE COCK. SIR,-Fig. 1 is a sketch of water gauge for steam boilers which I suggest as an improvement that, in my estimation, will please many of my brother readers, and Fig. 2 is a sketch of gauge cock which cannot fail to prove a cure to leakage and broken cocks.

THE PEDESPEED.-(Described on page 53.)

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with back nut. By drawing up the plug valve occasionally by the handle c and turning it as you pull, you rub off the, crustration; thus the engineer is provided with a water gauge that will tell no untruth through leakage and stoppage, because such cannot well exist, and the durability is more than doubled.

Much trouble has been experienced by the leakage and breaking of the gauge cocks as well as the leaking and breaking of the bottom cocks of the glass water gauge, but such is entirely prevented by my construction, as seen, Fig. 2, and by section 2 of its internal appearance, which is simply the bottom part of the water gauge, horizontally fixed by a back nut

inside of the boiler instead of pins, with nozzle n to shut downwards; this is really a simple affair, and should it or the glass water gauge leak in any part, it would be entirely the engine or boiler-tenter's own fault.

J. C. SHEWAN, Pitchcombe Works, near Stroud,
Gloucestershire.

SIR.-I wish to draw the attention of our correspondents to the fact that some hundreds of tons of black iron oxide are yearly produced in London alone by the manufacture of a new chemical. It can be ground and used as paint, but the demand for this purpose is very small; melting will not pay. No doubt some of our correspondents can suggest a mode of utilising it in quantity. Barnacles, &c., will not adhere to ships' bottoms if painted with this oxide, as it contains traces of sundry chemicals. R. G. BENNETT.

I think, even supposing the particular requirements were out of the case, that this is a good kind of swing latch, chiefly for this reason-that the weight on the right jaw can be so adjusted as to bring the blow of

great favourites of mine, I having made several. The first one was made about 10 years ago, very similar to the engraving sent by Edwin E. Hill, page 656, Vol. X. Subsequently I made a triangular one, with three wheels revolving together, of which I send sketch. The same amount of driving force acting on all the three buckets together make it altogether a powerful machine and much superior to the couple of wheels. A = a tub on the top of the machine, into which the driving medium is admitted, acting against the buckets (B) of the three wheels revolving together, bucket to bucket and allowing of no escape between till forcad asunder by the steam or water. The whole is in an air-tight box, and the three wheels geared together with a pair of mitre wheels fixed on the main shaft outside the case. I enclose a horizontal plan of the machine JOHN MUSGROVE, Kendal.

BOILER INCRUSTATION. of water, cream, or bottles of beer or wine may be SIR,-I some three weeks ago sent a note for inser-placed in the cylinder. The wine, not requiring to be tion in our valuable journal, requiring information in frozen, may remain only a short time, and then be replaced by a second or third edition, till the gas is completely condensed.

reference to a method for the eradication and prevention of incrustation in a multitubular boiler, but as

desired information.

FLOOD, Charles-street, Hanley, Staffordshire.

chine, as it prevents the boiler getting burnt.
It is best to use the stove supplied with the ma-

yet I have failed to see anything in reference to it in
print, whilst I see numbers of questions of far less
I have only heard of one accident, and that was
moment to your varied subscribers, such as Astronomy, from carelessness. A person in Australia had let the
Equations, and others of very little interest to one-machine lie for some time in the hot sun, and then
half of the workmen such, as I opine, support our placed it on the fire; of course, the "steam," so to
journal.
I see one, "Vivus Sperandum," mentions Irish moss. speak, was already up, and the consequence was a
blow up.
That I have tried, but it has not answered. I thought
of trying sulphuric acid mixed with it. Perhaps if it lasts many years. The boiler can be filled again,
The solution lasts, theoretically, for ever-in practice
the question is thoroughly ventilated, some of our
brother correspondents may be able to give me the but it is a very troublesome operation, as the moment
a soldering iron is brought near the aperture, the gas
begins to escape; still ft has been often done,
These machines are not so expensive as Mr. Yonge
says, but still they are too dear, and in consequence
are almost exclusively used in hot countries.
They afford the easiest and cheapest way of making
ice, leaving the first cost out of consideration, as no
chemicals whatever are required, only a charcoal or
coke fire;; other fuel will do, but is said not to be so
good.
There is an agent in London, but the machines are
only advertised in the particular papers which go to
hot countries.
I have unfortunately lost the drawings, or would
send one for you to engrave.

VIOLIN VARNISH.

SIR,-I am glad to see a letter in the ENGLISH MECHANIC on the subject of Violin Varnish." I almost despair of the secret of the old varnish being discovered. I, like many others, till lately thought it was made with oil, but now I am of opinion that the gum, whatever it was, was dissolved in spirits of some kind. No doubt the Italian makers paid the greatest attention to everything connected with the manufacture of violins, and that is the reason why their instruments surpass all others. In these days everything gives way to cheapness, and it does not pay a maker to construct instruments of accurate proportions. Most of the French copies have the back and belly of the same thickness throughout; of course a violin so made is cheaper, and takes less time to finish than an accurately-proportioned one, and then it is covered with a varnish that looks tolerably well, but injures the tone. I believe that very few violins are made in England now, as the cost of labour is so much less on the Continent, consequently English makers do not trouble

themselves about varnish.

SPECULUM GRINDING.

B.

SIR, I am sorry that Mr. Purkiss is at a loss to know what I meant by the question I asked him (page 606, Vol.X.) I will, however, try to put it as plain as I can. It has been found that a truly spherical mirror does not reflect all the rays which strike its surface to one focal point; the rays from those parts of the mirror near the circumference being reflected to points nearer the mirror than the rays from the more central part, consequently to make a mirror which shall reflect to one focus, the surface near the circumference must be rubbed away or depressed. Sir W. Herschel says, That the total thickness to be abraded from the edge of a spherical speculum 48in. in diameter, and 40ft. focus, to convert it into a paraboloid, is only 121333rd part of an inch." I copy this diagram from Mr. Browning's "Plea for Reflectors." The dotted line represents the spherical curve of the mirror when the polishing is begun, and the continuous line the parabolic curve it assumes when the polishing process

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is finished. It will be, of course, understood that in the diagram these curves are enormously exaggerated. Now, it will easily be seen that to convert the spherical surface a b, into the parabolic one c d, the inirror must be rubbed away more at the circumference a c and d, and gradually less as the centre e is approached. At page 358, Mr. Purkiss says, "The parabolising is effected not by depressing or rubbing away the edges of the disc, as in the old method, but by depressing the centre.

I suppose by the word disc, Mr. Purkiss means the mirror. Now, I cannot understand how the parabolic curve is formed by depressing the centre; if it had been the opposite, that is, by depressing the parts away from the centre or towards the circumference, I could have understood it. I am sorry indeed to give Mr. Purkiss trouble, but I hope he will forgive me for doing so, and putting me right on this point, I shall feel obligǝd. NOVICE.

ARTIFICIAL ICE.
SIR,-Your readers may perhaps like a fuller de-
scription of Carre's ice machine than is given by Mr.
Yonge, in No. 261, March 25th.

The "Domestic" machine is made of best iron boiler tubes, procured from England, and tested to 2001b. pressure. It consists of an upright boiler partly filled with very strong ammoniacal solution, so strong that a glass bottle of it held in the hand at once gives off bubbles or gas. From the top of this rises a tube to about the same height as the boiler. This tube ends in a smaller one, which bends down to level of top of the boiler, and is inserted into a cylindrical vessel kept at a distance of about a foot and a half from the boiler. This cylinder has a smaller one rivetted into it, in which the tin containing the water to be frozen is inserted.

The whole of the machine is hermetically closed, so as to allow no escape of the gas. The boiler is put on a charcoal fire, and when a thermometer shows the temperature to have risen to the proper point the solution is converted into gas at a great pressure. The boiler is removed from the fire, and placed in a tub of cold water; the tin of liquid to be frozen is placed in the cylinder, and the gas begins to condense. In a certain time, according to the coolness of the water in the tub, such a great degree of cold is produced by the condensation that the contents of the tin are frozen solid.

In hot countries the water in the tub must be changed two or three times as it gets warm. Instead

W. B. STANLEY, 443, Hackney-road.

I

including bronchitis, it is well known that medicines are of very little use, being merely palliatives. There is usually something wrong in the style of living or in the air that is breathed. By carrying out the above instructions our suffering friend might derive considerable relief; but if, unfortunately, that should not be the case, he may pursue the following plan :Take of pure croton oil one drop only, and apply it to the surface of the throat, rubbing it against the organ affected. Do this every day, and the oil, which is very powerful, will toon produce an eruption, which, as it progresses, will, in all probability, restore the voice to its full tone and vigour. TAUTAU

HOW TO MAKE A DECLINING RECLINING
SUN-DIAL,

noticed is that known by the name of reclining dial,
SIR, The last kind of sun-dial necessary to be
and it is such as may be made upon a plane which
house or church. If the plane exactly faces the S.,
reclines or leans back, like, for instance, the roof of a
and merely reclines from the zenith, the calculation
is easy, as well as the structure; the only thing neces-
sary to do is to find how many degrees it reclines
from the zenith, and to make it liken vertical dial of
a different latitude.
reclines must be added to the latitude, and then the
So many degrees as the plane
Thus, supposing the

dial made for that latitude.

plane reclines 10° from the zenith, the latitude must be reckoned as 100 more-namely, 61° 30-and then the dial made like a vertical soush dial; but if the plane declines as well as reclines, The calculation and "HOW TO KEEP THE CLOCK RIGHT." the structure require more care, and for this reason we seldom if ever see a dial of this kind. It may, howSIR, Such is the title of a book recently published, ever, be of service to know how to make one. The first and referred to by FR.A.S." in his article on "Tran- thing to do is to find the reclination of the plane, roof. sits," in your journal of last week. "F.R.A.S." says or slanting wall, and this may be done by applying a he has never seen the book. I have, and shall be carpenter's rule to the slant, and opening it till the glad to give him and your readers in general some other leg is on a level with the horizon, which may information about it, so that in stating my opinion be known by a common level. The angle may then may compare notes with any other of your readers be easily (measured. The declination may be found who, like myself, have been captivated by its title and by a magnetic needle, as directed page 460. We will become the possessor of a copy. The result of a dili- suppose, for the sake of showing how the problem gent study of it has been to me one of disappoint- may be solved, that the reclination from the zenith is ment. In theory the plan suggested is a capital one, 200, and the declination to be from the S. towards the but beyond theory, impracticable. No doubt the E. 30°. Our object must be to find five things: (1) the labour of the author in producing tables of the places latitude and longitude of the place where it would be of 350 stars has been very great, and in this respect a horizontal dial, (2) the distance of our 12 o'clock line great credit is due to him. His plan is to fix a small from the perpendicular, (3) the distance of the meritelescope permanently, so that it shall always point to dian of the plane from our 12 o'clock line, (4) the elevaa zone of the Heavens extending from 50° to 53° N.P.D., tion of the style, (5) the hour-arcs. We may find the and of course pointing as near as possible to the latitude and longitude of the place by the terrestrial meridian. So far, so good. By this means the tele- globe. If we elevate the N. pole to our latitude 51°, scope, pointing so near to the zenith, the chance of we must then screw the quadrant of altitude over the error is reduced almost to a minimum, and the error zenith 38° from the pole, and bring the end of it to when once discovered will be the same for every ob- the degree of the plane's declination, which in this servation and always, and the observation corrected case is 30° from the S. towards the E. We must then with the greatest ease. But now comes the funniest bring the meridian of Greenwich to the brazen meripart of the affair. The author says in his title page dian, and count upwards from the wooden horizon on that his "tables are arranged to show, by the use of a the quadrant of altitude 20°, which is the reclination little arithmetic, the mean solar time," &c., and at p. 8, of the plane from the zenith. Having made a mark he says, "The tables have been so arranged so as on this part of the globe, we must bring it to the to be readily used by those who are not astronomers, brazen meridian, We shall then know the latitude and whose acquaintance with mathematics is limited and longitude, which is 14° S. and 300 E. Now, since to the knowledge of a little arithmetic." Will it be the elevation of the style must always be equal to the believed, after such a statement, that the 350 stars latitude, we shall by this means know to what height whose places are given are most of them stars not to raise it. We shall also know the difference of time visible to the naked eye, being stars of the 7th and between this place and London-namely, 2 hours8th magnitudes, some of the 6th, a few of the 3rd and which we shall afterwards make use of in finding the 4th, and only one of the first? Even if these 350 were width of the hour-arcs. Again, since the plane on all the stars known in that zone of the Heavens to pass which we suppose our dial to the meridian in the course of 24 hours, when two or be made reclines from the three happen to cross the wire within one or two zenith, the 12 o'clock line will minutes of each other, how can it be known which is not be the perpendicular, as each star, especially if, owing to the state of the sky, in declining dials, but a little A a glimpse of the transit of one only is obtained? For distance from it; and in order instance, under 23h. R.A., I find one star's place to ascertain this distance, we given as 43m. 298.; the next, 47m. 458.; the next, shall find it convenient to 48m. 15s.; and the next, 49m. 228. If your clock were work it out by the formula in accurate, you might argue from the clock to the star, Spherical Trigonometry. In Fig. 1 let A be 90o C = and know what particular star was on the wire; but 30°, the declination, AC = 20°, the reclination. Here, you could not argue from the star to the clock as to its then, we have two angles and a side, and we can find correctness. But instead of the number of stars A B, the distance of the 12 o'clock line from the perincluded in that zone being limited to 350, it contains pendicular:-Thus, R: sin. A C: tan, C: tan A B more than 12000, at least 2000 of which are visible in which is 11° 10. Again, by the globe we find that the a small telescope. How, then, can even an astronomer place where the dial would be a horizontal one is in know what particular star is on the wire at any Africa, 140 S. and 30° E. This, converted into time instant, unless he argues from his clock to the star? by dividing by 15, gives 2 hours' difference; and we whereas the design of this book is to enable anyone may therefore find the distance of the meridian of "not an astronomer" to argue from the star to the the plane from our 12 o'clock line by the same formula clock! I cannot see how the book can be very useful-namely, R sin. lat. 14° tan. 300: tan. dist., for transit purposes, even to accomplished astrono- which is equal to 7° 57′; and this, added to the former mers. As to persons who are not astronomers, the 11° 10' 19° 7', is the distance of the substiler line idea is out of the question. I beg respectfully to enter from the perpendicular. The last thing to do is to my protest against the misleading statement I have find the hour-arcs; and the simplest way of doing quoted. LUKE THE LABOURER. this is to use the same formula as the preceding, which we also use to compute the hour-arcs on a horizontal dial; and where the time is an aliquot part of 12, the process is easy. We must take the meridian or substiler line as the beginning of the reckoning, and having marked all the distances on the dial, we

BRONCHITIS.

He

SIR,-I wish, with your permission, to offer a few remarks to "A Three Years' Sufferer" from this distressing disease. In the first place he should at once change his diet, avoiding much animal food, and living principally upon eggs and farinaceous food. should partake largely of pearl barley and groats well boiled in chicken broth or in mutton broth, skimming the latter carefully, and taking it entirely free from fat. Gruel, carefully made, and sweetened with honey, should be taken every evening instead of supper. This may be occasionally varied by eating roasted apples, of good quality, slightly sweetened. Drink three times every day aud three hours after every meal, a teacupful of the infusion of the common horehound. Keep warmly clad, and shun late hours and dissipation. Above all, keep the feet warm and dry, and wear next to the skin a flannel shirt. Do not wear mufflers, but gradually leave them off, and keep the chest warm by buttoning the coat up to the neck. This should always be done in severe weather. Ventilation should be particularly attended to, especially that of the bed-room. There are many ways of doing this without causing any draught, and it is as well to observe that if this important matter be not attended to, any other remedies will be almost useless, since it is through the afflicted organs (the bronchi) that the air is carried on to the lungs. In some diseases,

FIG. 2

VII VIIX XXXII

S

FIG

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C

can then number them; but we must be cautious to number with the right figures. In the case supposed, the meridian line must be numbered X., the next line towards the right hand XI., and so on; but on the left hand of the substiler line we must number them IX., VIIL, &c. If, however the longitude does not

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