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treatment may be described in a few words. The material is
carbonised in a retort, and the residue is called "Poudrette
coke." This serves to deodorise fresh ordure for transport.
The mixture of coke and filth is carbonised in a sort of double
retort, in one compartment of which the steam from the
mixture is made to pass over some coke rendered incandescent,

(2.) How many yards of cloth may be bought for £7 103. if by which hydrogen and carbonic oxide are produced. These 21 yards cost 5s. 4d.? (C. P.)

(3.) What fraction of 158. is 1 of £2 (C.P.)

(4.) What is the sum,

(5) Multiply

4 35

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2

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gases serve very well for heating the retorts, but have scarcely
any illuminating power. The writer, however, insists "that
poudrette coke surcharged with ordure will give a highly
- of 6 guineas? luminous gas," a statement we shall believe when we see the
gas flame.
Mr. Hickey should persuade the Hindoos to adopt
his system of cremation along with their ordure, and then he
would get an illuminating gas, for, as Sir Thomas Browne says
or quotes in his Urn Burial, "from animals are drawn good
burning lights." Mr. Hickey has certainly not solved the
sewage difficulty.

of which is £1 13s. (C.P.)

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(6) Redace 2 of half a guinea to the fraction of £1 15s. (C.P.)

(7.) A house is let at 50 guineas a year, what amount is due for 10 weeks 3 days? (C.P.)

The properties of pure water we must believe are at present
very little understood.
According to M. Becquerel distilled
water acts on all metals, even gold and platinum, and it
energetic substance.
seems likely that absolutely pure HO may really be a very

Puscher for giving colours to metals. Finding more precise
We have noticed before some processes devised by M.
details we return to the subject, since the invention is likely
have said, in producing a layer of sulphide on the surface of a
to interest some of our readers. The process consists, as we
thickness which must be varied according to the colour
desired. Thus on brass, according as this layer of sulphides
blue, or reddish blue shades can be obtained.
is varied, golden yellow, copper, red, crimson, blue, light
ration by which most of these effects are given consists of a
The colours,
moreover, are very solid, and will take a polish. The prepa-
solution of 45grms. of hyposulphite of soda and 15grms. of
heated it decomposes, and sulphide of lead is formed. The
of a guinea to the fraction of half a object to be coloured, therefore, has only to be immersed in

(8.) Three plum cakes of equal size are divided equally between seven boys, and two of them divide their shares equally with four other boys, one of whom gives his share to three other boys, who divide it equally. What fraction of a plum-cake is received by each boy of the first group of seven, of the second group of four, and of the third group of three? If three boys, one from each group, join their portions and share them equally, what fraction of a plum cake will each of the three have? (C.P.)

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the solution maintained at a temperature from 1900 to 2120 Fall, in order to be coated with the sulphide in shades of colour varying with the duration of the immersion. A few experiments will teach the exact time required to produce the shade. Iron is always blue, zinc receives a bronze shade, copper will take the colours named above except the golden yellow. When in the above solution, sulphate of copper is of a crown, and add substituted for acetate of lead, brass and imitation gold take first a beautiful red colour, then a green, and finally a rich brown. Marbled effects can by produced by first covering a brass object with a lead solution thickened with gum tragacanth, drying at 2129, and afterwards introducing it into the hyposulphite bath. This last we may say keeps unchanged when cold, and can be used many times over.

15

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(11.) From

of a guinea take

24

12

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[APRIL 8, 1870.

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR.

[We do not hold ourselves responsible for the opinions of our correspondents. The EDITOR respectfully requests that all communications should be drawn up as briefly as possible.]

EDITOR of the ENGLISH MECHANIC, 31, TavistockAll communications should be addressed to the street, Covent Garden, W.C.

All cheques and Post Office Orders to be made payable to J. PASSMORE EDWARDS,

I would have every one write what he knows, and
as much as he knows, but no more; and that not in
rience of the nature of such a person or such a foun-
this only, but in all other subjects: For such a per-
son may have some particular knowledge and expe-
tain, that, as to other things, knows no more than
whole body of physicks: a vice from whence great in-
what everybody does, and yet to keep a clutter with
this little pittance of his, will undertake to write the
conveniences
Essays,
derive their original. — Montaigne's

of this notation, which seems to have excited some
HAWKINS'S MUSICAL NOTATION.
SIR,-As I have been requested to send an example
fer simplicity to complexity, I will shortly send a
familiar melody,written in it, I am unable to inform
interest among such of your musical readers who pre-
this system. More than twenty years ago, I borrowed
"Tremolo" where he can purchase music printed on
Hawkins's instruction book (the only copy he pos-
sessed), and until you printed the common chord of
Hawkins's instruction book is in the British Museum,
C. I never again saw a single bar in print. Probably
and perhaps a copy may be in the stock of some dealer
in old and forgotten music. 1 should be very glad
to purchase a copy myself.

the lines of the staff in any position which liketh him
I need hardly inform "Tremolo," that he may put

best;

remember correctly, read the notes from the bottom Hawkins wrote them perpendicular, and if I may of course be written from top to bottom, or horiupward, just as I have illustrated the system. They zontally, from left to right, just as our common notation is; I think this the preferable way, but I may be prejudiced from habit in favour of what is familiar to

nese method of reading just as good as our own, if we were used to it. As Charles Dickens would say, "It's all along of our broughtens up." I don't remember my old friend mentioning why he placed his staff perpendicular but I have no doubt he could have stated why he did so, for he was pre-eminently a man who for every faith within him.-N. B.-Some of those could give a reason-satisfactory to himself at leastfaiths were rather odd, to say the least of them, but for all that he was "a jolly good fellow."

A very curious and important fact-if, indeed, it is a fact-me, for after all we might find the Persian or the Japais mentioned by M. Jouglet, who states that nitro-glycerine and dynamite explode in contact with ozone. Ozone, as our readers are well aware, is only known in the diluted state, and it is highly important to ascertain what proportion of explode. Since they are commonly employed in situations (quarries in the open country, for example) where, according to the meteorologists, ozone is tolerably certain to be found in the air, we must, unless M. Jouglet is contradicted, look on the use of dynamite even as highly dangerous. If the truth of the statement be established, we have explained the cause of some explosions which have been called ** spontaneous."

A very good suggestion for an air filter equally applicable for a ventilator or a respirator is made by M. Woestyn, who proposes to place in a ventilating shaft a bag of asbestos. This, like cotton, will arrest auy solid particles floating in the air, and when much soiled the asbetos can be removed and made white hot, by which all organic matters will be +1 (C.P.) destroyed, and it may then be put back in the shaft again. For respirators asbetos would be far preferable to the cotton like the wool, and would at the same time be most efficacious wool proposed by Dr. Tyndall. It would not hold moisture as a filter, and made so that the asbetos could be easily removed to be burnt and put back again, they might come into use and be highly recommended. There would be no obvious difficulties in the way of effectually filtering the air admitted to a large building, but we agree with M. Dumas in considering that the suggestion of M. Woestyn is worthy of

(18.) Reduce 3qr. 5lb. 9-oz. to the fraction of a cwt. (C.P.) (19.) Reduce 2qr. 11lb. 3oz. to the fraction of a cwt. (C.P.)

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Manganese, we fear, will never be a cheap metal, and
alone would seem to be susceptible of no useful application;
but we learn from the researches of M. Valenciennes that it
forms very beautiful and useful alloys with copper. One in
particular, containing only 15 per cent. of manganese, is
almost white, and in many of its properties greatly resembles
steel.
Other compounds, we are told, form superb bronzes.
How far these may be capable of replacing our ordinary
bronze it would be premature to speculate in the present
undeveloped state of the industry of manganese.
metallurgist we have mentioned above has procured pure
The same
cobalt, which seems to be a metal that may some day be
usefully applied.

People sometimes do odd things and arrive at strange and unexpected results. What M. Sidot was driving at when he carbonised wood in the vapour of sulphide of carbon we cannot imagine, but it ended in obtaining charcoal, which when struck is as sonorous as a piece of metal. He then got a bell turned in wood, carbonised it in the same way, and has an instrument which gives a sound like that of a silver bell. COLOURING METALS-DANGERS OF DYNAMITE AND NITRO-mey not be very brittle, as it certainly would be if it were The carbonisation is only superficial, and possibly the bell GLYCERINE.-AN ASBETOS AIR FILTER-MANGANESE complete. Besides sulphide of carbon, the author calcined

NOTES ON RECENT DISCOVERIES IN SCIENCE, AND
THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS.

GAS FROM SEWAGE-SOLVENT POWER OF PURE WATER

SOME ALLOYS OF IT-RESULTS OF CARBONISING WOOD
IN VARIOUS VAPOURS,

WE have at last some information on the method pursued in India to make gas from sewage, a matter which excited a good deal of attention some months ago, and produced some wonderful speculations from writers in the daily press. In noticing the subject at the time, we said that "the only conceivable mode of obtaining gas from such a material as solid excrement, is by distilling it in a retort just as we do coal," and such, we see by a letter in the Chemical News from Mr. Hickey, C.E.. of Calcutta, is the method actually pursued. The writer calls his system "a system of conservancy." It is really a system of wanton waste, as bad as our London System. He destroys all the manurial properties of the filth and gets only a little gas, which can be good for nothing but heating his furnaces to effect the destruction. The plan of

wood in the vapour of wood spirit, and so obtained a fibrous
coke of silky whiteness. This is a very curious result; white
coke is a novelty, and it would be interesting to know for
certain what does happen when wood is heated to a carbo-
nizing temperature in the vapour of wood spirit.-Mecha-
nic's Magazine.

To one and all I beg to say, that I am quite unable to describe Hawkins's notation more lucidly than I have done, so I take the liberty of advising "Flautist," page 304, to mark, on paper, learn, and inwardly digest (not the paper), but the system, as I have set it forth, not doubting that so astute an ignoramus as be evidently is, will require no further edification than what that process and a little thought on the subject, will afford him. The labour can hardly be great, for Tremolo" has succeeded in the attempt at the first trial, a thing which seldom occurs in works of great difficulty.

tion simpler than Hawkins's, rather surprises me. It is
How" One and All" can think the tonic sol fa nota-
true, only one sign viz. & letter, is needed for each sound
of the diatonic scale, but the system is not convenient
for frequent changes of key, and the notes require
adjuncts to indicate their temporal value. This is
expressed in Hawkins' by varying the length (only) of
the note itself a pretty yet conclusive proof, which is
the least complex of the two.
THE HARMONIOUS BLACKSMITH.

"F.R.A.S." AND THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC. SIR,-I cannot help thinking that "F.R.A.S." is extremely unfortunate in his endeavour to fasten the duty of recomputing the tables of Jupiter's satellites on one of our national scientific establishments. Nautical Almanac office as the proper place for com"W. E. P." has denied the propriety of selecting the putations of this nature, and F.R.A.S." cordially agrees with him, and shifts the responsibility on to inappropriate, as it must be universally admitted that the Royal Observatory, which, I think, is still more the object for which an observatory is established and maintained is to make observations, or to give the them. means of forming tables, but not to actually calculate extremely anxious to have new tables computed, that But I should advise, since "F.R.A.S." is so he mention the subject to his friend the Astronomer vince him that the Royal Obseruatory is not the place Royal, who, I think I may venture to say, will confor corducting calculations of such a nature.

never shown itself ready in the laborious work of It must be admitted with pain that this country has computing tables of planets, &c.; and every ephemeris that is provided by the Nautical Almanac Office is calculated from tables compiled by foreigners; and it seems probable that the discussion of the elements of the Jovian system will be left to some distinguished Continental astronomer, unless "F.R.A.S." is willing venation and the nature of the surface of foliage, pho-self famous even among others than the readers of to undertake the labour himself, and so render himthan is now commonly thought of. tography may be turned to good account -far more your excellent periodical. OMICRON. A correspondent

PHOTOGRAPHY IN BOTANY.-To illustrate

of the American Naturalist says he has seen a photo-
graph from a specimen of one of the coriaceous-leaved
oaks of the Dutch Indies which was truly wonderful
in its rendering.

ASTRONOMICAL. SIR, Allow me to tender my sincere thanks to "F.R.A.S." for his reply of the 18th ult. Although I

believe I am a fair amateur astronomer, yet it is
only lately I have been a practical observer, so am
not a fair judge of what is in truth a test for a good
speculum.
For instance, theoretically a very fine specimen of
5 in. aperture should divide a double but 77" apart,
and give a glimpse of a "come" of 12-6 standard
magnitude. Still there may te doubless but apart
and 12 mag. "comes" that the finest 6in. could not
master, rendering tests apparently easy practically
extremely severe. Ergo, "F.R.A.S." will understand
why doubles, &c., that in truth may be no est, figure

in this list.

32 Orionis, Orionis and Bootes, again, uumistakably divided, each being tried three times.

2 Bootes, and y Andromeda, both elongated, but was unable to decide as to the notching of the latter, the definition was not steady.

35 Equulel, 128 Pr Pisces, 4 Lyneis, and 121 Pxx Ursa Major, all clearly divided-the third hardest, and I can hardly think it can be but 1" apart; it seems nearly 1" apart only.

21 Lyncis. (The name is almost illegible, so I am not aware whether it is 24 or 34.) The first star on "F.R.A.S.'s" list I have not the R.A. of, neither have I it from Struve's catalogue.

Equulei. I always understood this to be a triple of 13 and 8" apart, so sometime back tried to divide the closer, as I fancied, of the two, after dividing the wider, but did not succeed, the altitude being low. I noticed, though, a star about 15" to the right of it and below. Mr. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., was my authority.

14 Lyncis, 145 Leonis. Cancri, and Cygni. Readily elongated all, strongly notched the first, plainly the second, and to my surprise, gave a clear and distinct pair of discs to Cancri (I divided the first with full aperture). Cygni, was almost, if not quite divided, showed a splendid pair of discs. With regard to light on nights when the large mirror, with an aperture of just over in., picks up the smallest" comes" to 7 Orionis, 178 Pxx Delphini, 15 Monacerotis (Nu) Ceti, and Sagittarii, the smaller does the same with nearly iv. Jess aperture: with perseverance the smaller aperture) picks up the "comes" to a Lyræ, Ceti, Virginis, y Orionis, Cancri, and Orionis. It easily picks up the triple o2(Omicron) Cygni, but I have been almost sure I have seen a fourth, but I find that Smyth and Webb put it down as triple.

which he calls "incomprehensible," arises from his
own vague way of expressing himself, as I am quite
certain that any ordinary intellect would be as well
able to comprehend what is meant by the "centre of a
journal" as by the "centre of an invention." Would
Mr. Evans explain the following sentences in his first
letter? "All the centres are equal in length and
line; it will then be seen that the stones can be hung
at 5in. or 10in., or any intermediate distance," &c.
Does he mean that because the "centres are equal,"
&c., that therefore the stones can be hung as stated?
I may here state that the "globe-head has nearly
superseded the "universal joint" in all the large mills
in Ireland.
J. SHARPE.

eight rows of spikes or teeth, and making 300 to 400 revolutions per minute; there are also two or three rows more of the same kind of teeth, fastened to the cover of the cylinder, and so arranged as to allow the cylinder teeth, when revolving, to pass between them, tims opening the cotton and throwing down the seeds and dirt to the bottom, where there is a grid for the cotton to strike against, and so free itself from the dirt, which passes through the bars of the grid, the cotton is then passed on to the machine described by "Gitche Manito."

P.S.-In a recent letter of mine (quoted by Mr. Evans on p. 11) there is a clerical error. For "foci "Stockport, and yet it scarcely ever contains a scrap read "ends."

SIR,-As the subject in question is one in which we are all interested more or less, may I be permitted to make a few remarks thereupon? First, I would respectfully ask Mr. R. R. Smith if we are to understand him to say that the cross-wind in his bedstone was the cause of the trouble he had with the neck of his spindle?

I think it would be an advantage to the MECF ANIC, if some person would give a description of the machines and processes of the cotton manufacture, for your paper has a large circulation in the district of of matter relating to its staple trade. For myself I shall be glad at any time to answer to the best of my ability any question appertaining to this branch of our industry. FACTORY LAD.

PHOTOGRAPHY.

SIR,-I must apologise for not answering "Photo before this, on the subject of "Toning," but the fact is, I did not receive my ENGLISH MECHANIC, as it went down on board the unfortunate steamer Normandy.

And, secondly, with all deference to his opinion, I
beg leave to differ with his theory of millstone
balance. In answer to "Cumberland Jowhn," he says,
"Put the stone in running balance, and the long
I presume that "Photo" wants to tone a trans-
spindle will make the stone hang steadier." Will it
do so? I trow not. The long spindle will cause the parent positive, not negative. He may have been par-
stone to hang more sluggish, and the consequent drag tially led to say negative through my saying so in my
on the face will cause the spindle to vibrate, on ac-
last. I should have said positive. Now arises ano-
count of its inordinate length, to the detriment of the ther question. Is the querist going to make some
neck, and even the toe and driving gear. Let C. J." transparencies? If so, as they of course will be done
cut his spindle so as to bring his bearings within the at home, he can spare more time, and with that idea,
line of gravity. The balance will become thereby more
let him develop with pyro, instead of iron, giving
sensitive when the stone is at its proper velocity. And about three times the length of exposure. This gene-
if the case were mine I would do away with the cross-rally gives a warm tone and pleasing-like a light
bar, which is not the best arrangement, on account of chocolate. Another way is to develop with iron; do not
the excessive friction of the driver faces, which are intensify unless very thin, and after fixing pour over
also not unfrequently out of line with the centre a dilute solution of chl. gold. This will tone rapidly
And I dare venture to predict that he would have no mercury added to the gold solution is good, but for
some cases a grain of bichlor.
bearing, and replace it with a good Universal Rynot. and pleasantly.
further trouble with the neck, and superior work my own working I dispense with mercury, unless for
would be the result.
THOS. EVANS.
negatives I only want to use once or twice." Photo
must remember that in all cases a transparency must
be fully exposed, certainly rather over than under, in
order to get full detail. I suppose that he knows how
to mount them either for the stereoscope or screen? If
not I will tell him at a future time.

SHODDY MANUFACTURE. SIR,-A "willey," a "willow," a "devil" are only different names for the same thing, and is not a shoddy machine, nor would it answer for one. A willow is the first machine that wool (not cotton) passes through for the purpose of opening the wool aud knocking out the Can" F.R.A.S." tell me the smallest aperture it is a stuff Sheddy does not require this operation, and therefore does not go into the willey, but into the possible to see the 6 with? Mr. Cooke tells me a 3 "teazer." A shoddy machine consists merely of a of his showed them; and in Guilleman's "Heavens drum or cylinder about 4ft. dia. by 20in. wide (workI also find it so stated.

Or.onis, 5th and 6th star, easily seen.

In

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May I ask "Photo" to be a little more explicit. What sort of house does he mean? Dark room, or studio, or workshop?

Then he says, "He sometimes finds a ring, or more than one solarised place." Ah! I know what that is. I've had it all before now. Listen. These rings the developer on that portion of the plate where these spots are afterwards produced.

There is one point in "F.R.A.S.'s" letter I cannot ing in a frame similar to a large grinding-stone), and (transparent spots of course) are caused by pouring

make out. He speaks as though a 2ft. mirror were necessary to see the satellites of Uranus. According to Arago, an 18in. metallic mirror is amply large enough, while their exact period of revolution was determined by an 11in. refracter. Moreover, I have once or twice thought I glimpsed them in a 10in. with Browning's mirror used as an Herschellian, or front viewed telescope. Having for the last month been watching Uranus, with two friends, I have paid a little attention to it, and one of my friends' 9in. refractor, I am informed, shows traces of the largest satellite. However there is a capital test as to the capabilities of a telescope to see them. Between 8 and 32 Capricorni is a close double, under 3" apart, and of 17 mag. each. Any telescope that with a power of 500 will clearly divide this double is capable of picking up the two largest satellites, number 3 and t. And I may remark my 10 just divides them with a power of 700, while an 11in. Mery will divide them cleanly with

a power of 300.

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3

16

The

a pair of fluted rollers. The cylinder is made with
two metal drum rings, covered with inch thick timber,
on which are screwed or bolted elm lags, about 1ĝin.
thick, and any convenient breadth. These lags are
Do not pour the developer on one spot. Sweep it
divided into spaces about in. asunder, and the teeth gently over the plate, at the same time tilting the
are placed alternately in each row. They are steel, plate by a twist of the wrist so that the developer may
and may be any shape-either round, square, or octa-pass over the whole. Solarised spots must of course
be caused by actinic light (white light) touching the
gonal. They are about in. thick at the butt, and negative. Perhaps a small hole in the back or in the
camera itself, or it may be some organic substance
taper to a point. They project about 13in. beyond the fallen and so piled up, and reduced the silver during
timber, and are generally kept in enough from the end exposure. In all such cases care must be taken to try
of the lag to admit of a stout in. hoop being driven and ascertain where the fault lies. First look at your
on, which keeps the lags from flying off in case any back (dark slide). If that is light-tight try the ca-
of the screws should break. When the cylinder is mera. If all right, look to the windows of your dark
placed in its bearings, a rest should be made fast on clean your glasses (away from the dark room), and
room, put out of the way all organic matter well
the frame, and near enough to the cylinder just to
allow the teeth to pass, and then, with a piece of also see that your dark slide is clean and works freely.
coarse grindstone, grind all the teeth to an equal As it is very unlikely that it is caused by the lens un-
height. While this is doing, the cylinder should be less that is struck direct by the sun, why he need not
driven the reverse way to the way it is to work.
trouble himself about that part of the furniture. How-
burr produced on the top of the teeth by this opera- ever, the best shade for the lens is an instantaneous
tion is the principal feature in the machine's effective- shutter. If he wants to know how to make one, with
After the machine has worked some time, the your permission, Mr. Editor, I will show him how I
burr will get on the opposite side of the teeth. The inade mine.
cylinder should then be reversed in the frame. The
shaft or axis of the cylinder should be long enough to
have a driving pulley on each end, or to remove the
when at work, should go at least 800 revolutions per
pulley from one end to the other. The cylinder,
minute. Across the frame, and as close to the cylin-
der as possible, are two fluted rollers, through which
the rags pass. These rollers work in a fork at each
end. The top one is kept down by weighted levers.
The smaller these rollers are in diameter, consistent
with strength, the better. The rags are laid thin and
even on a feed (which I suppose does not require auy
description). The whole machine is cased in with a
provision to take out the shoddy from under the
machine, and a flue for ventilation. The rollers and
feed, which go very slow, are driven from the cylin
der shaft. The operation cannot be called "tearing,"
as the rags are fretted
cracker of a whip.
away, something like the

ness.

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The want of silver deposit on the lower parts of the "Photo" face I think I can explain in a few words. gets all his light to strike down on the sifter. Is it reflect the light on to the lower part of the sitter's not so? If so, let him get a board and cover it with pure white paper, and place it at such an angle as to face. I think he will find it all right then.

"Photo," and others, are welcome to what I can tell them, for I would not give a " fig" for a man who hoards up "what he knows without telling others, ie., of course, if it's worth knowing. At the same time I hold with one of our correspondents, who says that people should write what they know, not what they think.

Mus.

QUESTIONS FOR MILLERS. SIR,-I should be very sorry to strive to deprive Mr. Evans of the credit of being the inventor of the universal joint, but I believe it is a universal fact that Hood invented it long before Mr. E. was born. The only portion of it as applied to driving mill stones that he can lay any claim to is the outward ring. which he supposes originated with himself; but it is quite a common method here of having the stones built round a metal ring for the same purpose, which has the advantage of not occupying any portion of the eye of the stone, as Mr. E.'s does. I have metal boxes let into the eye of my stones for the bearings to slide in," which I consider an improvement on Mr. E. "outward ring," as there is then no necessity for CASE HARDENING making one of the rings oval. When I read Mr. SIR,-There is an application for letters patent for E.'s description of his invention I thought he only J. SHARPE, Templeogue, Co. Dublin. case-hardening from a Mr. Armitage, of Kirkstall, referred to the "oval ring," or I should not have near Leeds. The following is something like the noticed it at all, because I did not consider the SIR,-On reading this week's number of the ME-process-A quantity of pulverised prussiate of potass "outward ring" an improvement, but quite the CHANIC, I was struck with "Gitche Manito's" very is put into a wrought iron retort open at one end. reverse, as the sliding steps are common at Templeogue, abrupt remarks on " Scrutator" and the shoddy manu- The retort is put on the fire, and as soon as there is while the oval ring is confined to myself; and I now facture, and it occurred to me that it would have heat enough communicated to make the mixture boil, see that our motives for adopting the oval shape are been better for "Gitche Manito," if he had rememthe article to be hardened is plunged into the boiling quite differeut, as he had to resort to it in order to bered the time-honoured proverb That they who mixture, and after it becomes red-hot it is taken out have the four journals the same distance from the live in glass houses," &c. Now, I have to charge and immersed in cold water, and the process is centre, which is not necessary for the purpose of "Gitche Manito" with the same fault that he lays on finished. What I want to know is, whether this is making a "true universal joint." I have seen a hole" Scrutator," viz., that he has jumbled together the an old or a new process. If the former, then it would drilled through the "cock-head "of a spindle near the willowing and scutching machines, as applied to be an injustice to every manufacturer that has to casetop, and a round pin driven in, leaving enough of it cotton manufacture, and also with rushing headlong harden his iron by the prussiate of potass process; if projecting on both sides of the spindle for the outward into print when he is not thoroughly acquainted with new, then the gentleman has a right to his invention. ring to rest on, and it worked as free as if it were the his subject, and I would further impose upon his mefull size of the outward ring. But now, Sir, before mory the first few words of your quotation from Mongiving Mr. Evans the explanation he wants relative taigne's Essays: "I would have every one write what to the sentence which appears to him "incompre- he knows, and as much as he knows, but no more." I hensible"-namely, that the centres of all the see that he has consulted one of our best encyolopæjournals are in the same (vertical) circle"-I think it dias on the subject, but it would be best if answers necessary to refer to his former communication, where on subjects of manufactures could be given by prache says that "all the centres are equal in length and tical persous. line," and to ask him what he means by "centres ?" In his last letter he calls them "the centres of his invention," from which I conclude that the difficulty he experienced in reconciling the two statements

Now the machine described by "Gitche Manito"
is the scutcher. The willow is an entirely different
machine, and is very
often termed the devil;
it consists of one large cylinder, containing about|

I for one recollect to have case-hardened by this process 26 years ago, with this exception, that the open end of the retort was sealed up with a luting of clay; and I have often practised this same process since that time. I should take it as a favour if those of your readers who are interested in case-hardening would give an opinion.

I was going to compliment you on the improved form of our MECHANIC, but it would be folly to do so on my part. The recent issue speaks volumes of itself, and will carry with it its own recommendation. ST. GEORGE.

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this cap, or even without any hook or hooks at all., baking bread and pastry. This oven is shown without STEVENS'S IMPROVEMENTS IN COOKING. Fig. 6 represents a piece of sheet iron, the top or the stand and with an arched top. Fig. 15 represents SIR,-In No. 248 you illustrated an improved kitchen circle part with the edge turned down to hang on the the sliding cap or cover for oven 13 and 14, with the range. I send you herewith drawings and description front of the oven about half the way down or more if bar, knob, and hook. Fig. 16 represents the wire of a new oven, lately patented by Mr. Ebenezer required, when the oven is used for baking bread or baking dish stand for ovens 13 and 14, standing on its Stevens, of Margate, which seems capable of cooking pastry, to keep the direct heat of the fire from scorch-legs as for baking, placed in a dish or plate; it will almost anything. Fig. 1 represents the oven asing the bread. Fig. 7 represents the revolving grid- stand upright or in an inclined position, similar to arranged for roasting, if all the space of the oven is ironed baking dish stand for the oven on its feet or baking dish stand Fig. 12. Fig. 17 represents the required for that purpose, with the revolving baking legs as used for baking purposes. Fig. 8 represents baking plate for ovens, Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 18 plate and dish upon the bottom, showing the door at the removable rods or cross bars with the hook, which represents the circular baking plate with pivot, to the back partly opened for basting or other purposes. goes across the hole or opening at the top of the oven, work in the centre hole of the baking plate. Fig. 17. The hook is turned as required by the knob which is by which the meat is suspended and turned round as Fig. 19 represents the toaster for chops or steaks made to turn round for turning the meat on the hook. required. This figure belongs to the oven shown in before the fire; the band or bridge across the dish An ordinary hook or books are used, or the hook or Fig. 2, the lid, cap, or cover of which has a hole or may be a fixture or made to slide on the dish. The hooks shown in Fig. 11. Fig. 2 represents the oven opening in the centre, so that it covers up close all hooks turn round separately, and the frame works also arranged for roasting, but with the knob or coued round the knob and the hook, and thus the mea: can round on a pivot. Fig. 20 represents the revolving or flat cover, top or lid with a hole, circle, or slot be turned whether the cover is up or down, whether gridiron, the reservoir is all round below the bars, and formed in the cover thrown back, similar to the lid of open or shut. These supports for the meat can be the bars are slightly arched and fluted, or otherwise; a teapot, to enable the cook to observe more easily arranged to fit outside or inside of the top of the oven. the bars may be properly formed and attached to the the progress of the cooking; this knob, cover, or lid in Fig. 9 represents the baking plate of the oven with reservoir itself, singly or otherwise, as a fixture, or some cases is made as shown in Fig. 1, but in this case revolving plate working on the bottom plate. Fig. 10 fastened to end pieces and clipped fast to the reservoir a straight or arched band, rod, or other support, is represents the revolving adjusting oven stand, work- by the two ends turned up and over of the under cross fixed across an opening at the top of the oven, having iug on one centre screw, or they may be made to slip band or bar, into or upon which the handle is made in the centre a hole or otherwise to which are attached up and down in a socket or hollow tube, and fixed by to work the gridiron round upon. BON VIVANT. hooks to revolve, so that the hollow cap, lid, or cover a thumbscrew at the side of the socket or tube, or by will lift up on a hinge or hinges to watch the roasting a centre pin and hollow tube with a hole through each of the meat without being suspended to the bottom of at desired distances, and kept in its place by a pin. the knob itself, and in other cases a slide cover is used Fig. 11 represents a roasting hook or hooks that can be instead of a cap or cover to place over the hook or used with or without the oven if desired. Fig. 12 hooks without any hinge, and in other cases a cap or represents the revolving gridironed oven baking dish cover without any hinge. Fig. 3 represents the oven stand in an upright or inclined position as it stands in as best arranged for baking meat with or without an ordinary plate. Fig. 13 represents the oven in a pudding and potatoes; the revolving baking plate is square or nearly square form on a stand, but not The water gauge, as may be seen by the declivity now upon the bottom side rims or flanges of the oven, adjusting. In this shape the same kind of hole in given in the bottom part of the gauge, obviates the and the baking dish upon the baking plate, and the the centre at the top with a knob or a bar across and lodging of sand. Section 1 represents the internal revolving baking dish stand in the dish, showing the hook, are used, as in Figs. 1 and 2, but instead of a cap appearance; a a is a plug valve and seat in the bottom door of the oven partly opened for turning the dish, or cover, as in Fig. 2, the hole is opened and closed part, which is provided with a flange to bolt it to the and the knob or cover thrown back for looking into by a sliding cover working on a pivot, having a slotch boiler with four pins; this plug valve is fixed as seen the oven to see the progress of the baking. Fig. 4 or opening therein, so shaped as to clear the knob, on the end of a smooth 3-16th inch rod, which passes represents the oven as arranged for baking pies, pud- handle, or ring of the hook in or on the cross bar, and through a gland g, which can be packed at any time dings, pastry, bread, cakes, or any food required, with effectually close the opening on the top of the oven by drawing up the plug, which the pressure will keep two revolving baking plates upon the side rims or when required. Instead of a revolving baking dish up tightly providing the cock n be shut, which cock is flanges of the oven, and if it is required with a large stand, in this oven the inventor sometimes makes a provided with a gland, as seen, and the working pin oven, more than two shelves can be used, and each wire, or other gridironed baking stand, with three or has its tightening surface broken by or ae passage shelf or shelves can be used to suit the fire or the four projections, legs, or catches, either to rest on the hole, the course being in through the bottom, and out food to be baked. The cover or knob and door in rim of the dish, or to stand in the dish; this Fig. at the side; it is evident no sand can find rest in this this Fig. are both shut. Fig. 5 represents the oven shows the arrangement for baking. The baking plate gauge, but should there be any oily or other matter baking dish with the revolving gridironed baking or plates revolve as in the D-shaped ovens, the only floating on the water, it may be blown out by turning dish stand placed in the dish in an inclined posi- difference being in the shape of the ovens. Some- the pin of the cock n until its course is equal with the tion; it stands upon the rim, and the legs side- times these square, or nearly square ovens, are made vent hole s, thus, by the pressure from the bottom, the ways, torming a small toaster without using the oven with arched tops, and the sliding cap, cover, or knob, glass is cleared; it may also be seen that the gauge for chops and small articles of food. The small cap is arranged accordingly; and in some cases, accord-glass is protected and made tight by a shield, the same piece at the top with two hooks drops on and holds ing to the size of the oven, the whole, or nearly the as the "Aston gauge, differing only by being fast, and is added if required when the stand is used whole, of the top of the oven is made to lift up. Fig. lightened by the box nut m, which, when screwed as a toaster, or an ordinary pot hook or pot hooks 14 represents the same oven as Fig. 13, but with the down tight, is followed down on a little hemp and red double at one end may be used with this stand without baking stand and baking dish out, and arranged for lead, tight to prevent escape through the threads

WATER GAUGE AND GAUGE COCK. SIR,-Fig. 1 is a sketch of water gauge for steam boilers which I suggest as an improvement that, in my estimation, will please many of my brother readers, and Fig. 2 is a sketch of gauge cock which cannot fail to prove a cure to leakage and broken cocks.

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with back nut. By drawing up the plug valve occasionally by the handle c and turning it as you pull. you rub off the, crustration; thus the engineer is provided with a water gauge that will tell no untruth through leakage and stoppage, because such cannot well exist, and the durability is more than doubled.

Much trouble has been experienced by the leakage and breaking of the gauge cocks as well as the leaking and breaking of the bottom cocks of the glass water gauge, but such is entirely prevented by my construction, as seen, Fig. 2, and by section 2 of its internal appearance, which is simply the bottom part of the water gauge, horizontally fixed by a back nut

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THE PEDESPEED.-(Described on page 53.)

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inside of the boiler instead of pins, with nozzle n to shut downwards; this is really a simple affair, and should it or the glass water gauge leak in any part, it would be entirely the engine or boiler-tenter's own fault.

J. C. SHEWAN, Pitchcombe Works, near Stroud,
Gloucestershire.

SIR.-I wish to draw the attention of our correspondents to the fact that some hundreds of tons of black iron oxide are yearly produced in London alone by the manufacture of a new chemical. It can be ground and used as paint, but the demand for this purpose is very small; melting will not pay. doubt some of our correspondents can suggest a mode of utilising it in quantity. Barnacles, &c., will not adhere to ships' bottoms if painted with this oxide, as it contains traces of sundry chemicals. R. G. BENNETT.

I think, even supposing the particular requirements were out of the case, that this is a good kind of swing latch, chiefly for this reason-that the weight on the right jaw can be so adjusted as to bring the blow of

great favourites of mine, I having made several. The first one was made about 10 years ago, very similar to the engraving sent by Edwin E. Hill, page 656, Vol. X. Subsequently I made a triangular one, with three wheels revolving together, of which I send sketch. The same amount of driving force acting on all the three buckets together make it altogether a powerful machine and much superior to the couple of wheels. A = a tub on the top of the machine, into which the driving medium is admitted, acting against the buckets (B) of the three wheels revolving together, bucket to bucket and allowing of no escape between till forced asunder by the steam or water. The whole is in an air-tight box, and the three wheels geared together with a pair of mitre wheels fixed on the main shaft outside the case. I enclose a horizontal plan of the machine JOHN MUSGROVE, Kendal.

BOILER INCRUSTATION.

SIR-I some three weeks ago sent a note for insertion in our valuable journal, requiring information in reference to a method for the eradication and prevention of incrustation in a multitubular boiler, but as yet I have failed to see anything in reference to it in print, whilst I see numbers of questions of far less moment to your varied subscribers, such as Astronomy, Equations, and others of very little interest to onehalf of the workmen such, as I opine, support our journal.

I see one, "Vivus Sperandum," mentions Irish moss. That I have tried, but it has not answered. I thought of trying sulphuric acid mixed with it. Perhaps if the question is thoroughly ventilated, some of our brother correspondents may be able to give me the

desired information.

FLOOD, Charles-street, Hanley, Staffordshire.

VIOLIN VARNISH.

SIR,-I am glad to see a letter in the ENGLISH MECHANIC on the subject of Violin Varnish." I almost despair of the secret of the old varnish being discovered. I, like many others, till lately thought it was made with oil, but now I am of opinion that the gum, whatever it was, was dissolved in spirits of some kind. No doubt the Italian makers paid the greatest attention to everything connected with the manufacture of violins, and that is the reason why their instruments surpass all others. In these days everything gives way to cheapness, and it does not pay a maker to construct instruments of accurate proportions. Most of the French copies have the back and belly of the same thickness throughout; of course a violin so made is cheaper, and takes less time to finish than an accurately-proportioned one, and then it is covered with a varnish that looks tolerably well, but injures the tone. I believe that very few violins are made in England now, as the cost of labour is so much less on the Continent, consequently English makers do not trouble themselves about varnish.

SPECULUM GRINDING.

B.

SIR, I am sorry that Mr. Purkiss is at a loss to know what I meant by the question I asked him (page 606, Vol.X.) I will, however, try to put it as plain as I can. It has been found that a truly spherical mirror does not reflect all the rays which strike its surface to one focal point; the rays from those parts of the mirror near the circumference being reflected to points nearer the mirror than the rays from the more central part, consequently to make a mirror which shall reflect to one focus, the surface near the circumference must be rubbed away or depressed. Sir W. Herschel says, "That the total thickness to be abraded from the edge of a spherical speculum 48in. in, diameter, and 40ft. focus, to convert it into a paraboloid, is only 121333rd part of an inch." I copy this diagram from Mr. Browning's "Plea for Reflectors." The dotted line represents the spherical curve of the mirror when the polishing is begun, and the continuous line the parabolic curve it assumes when the polishing process

a

C

is finished. It will be, of course, understood that in the diagram these curves are enormously exaggerated. Now, it will easily be seen that to convert the spherical surface a b, into the parabolic one c d, the inirror must be rubbed away more at the circumference a c and bd, and gradually less as the centre e is approached. At page 358, Mr. Purkiss says, "The parabolising is effected not by depressing or rubbing away the edges of the disc, as in the old method, but by depressing the centre.

I suppose by the word disc, Mr. Purkiss means the mirror. Now, I cannot understand how the parabolic curve is formed by depressing the centre; if it had been the opposite, that is, by depressing the parts away from the centre or towards the circumference, I could have understood it. I am sorry indeed to give Mr. Purkiss trouble, but I hope he will forgive me for doing so, and putting me right on this point, I shall feel obligǝd. NOVICE.

ARTIFICIAL ICE.
SIR,-Your readers may perhaps like a fuller de-
scription of Carre's ice machine than is given by Mr.
Yonge, in No. 261, March 25th.

The Domestic" machine is made of best iron boiler tubes, procured from England, and tested to 2001b. pressure. It consists of an upright boiler partly filled with very strong ammoniacal solution, so strong that a glass bottle of it held in the hand at once gives off bubbles or gas. From the top of this rises a tube to about the same height as the boiler. This tube ends in a smaller one, which bends down to level of top of the boiler, and is inserted into a cylindrical vessel kept at a distance of about a foot and a half from the boiler. This cylinder has a smaller one rivetted into it, in which the tin containing the water to be frozen is inserted.

The whole of the machine is hermetically closed, so as to allow no escape of the gas. The boiler is put on a charcoal fire, and when a thermometer shows the temperature to have risen to the proper point the solution is converted into gas at a great pressure. The boiler is removed from the fire, and placed in a tub of cold water; the tin of liquid to be frozen is placed in the cylinder, and the gas begins to condense. In a certain time, according to the coolness of the water in the tub, such a great degree of cold is produced by the condensation that the contents of the tin are frozen solid.

In hot countries the water in the tub must be changed two or three times as it gets warm. Instead

of water, cream, or bottles of beer or wine may be
placed in the cylinder. The wine, not requiring to be
frozen, may remain only a short time, and then
completely condensed.
be replaced by a second or third edition, till the gas is

It is best to use the stove supplied with the ma-
chine, as it prevents the boiler getting burnt.
I have only heard of one accident, and that was
from carelessness. A person in Australia had let the
machine lie for some time in the hot sun, and then
placed it on the fire; of course, the "steam," so to
blow up.
speak, was already up, and the consequence was a

including bronchitis, it is well known that medicines
are of very little use, being merely palliatives. There
is usually something wrong in the style of living or
in the air that is breathed. By carrying out the above
instructions our suffering friend might derive con-
siderable relief; but if, unfortunately, that should
not be the case, he may pursue the following plan :-
Take of pure croton oil one drop only, and apply it to
the surface of the throat, rubbing it against the organ
affected. Do this every day, and the oil, which is
very powerful, will toon produce an eruption, which,
as it progresses, will, in all probability, restore the
voice to its full tone and vigour.
TAUTAU.

it lasts many years. The boiler can be filled again,
The solution lasts, theoretically, for ever-in practice
but it is a very troublesome operation, as the moment HOW TO MAKE A DECLINING RECLINING
SUN-DIAL,
a soldering iron is brought near the aperture, the gas
begins to escape; still it has been often done,
These machines are not so expensive as Mr. Yonge
says, but still they are too dear, and in consequence
are almost exclusively used in hot countries.
They afford the easiest and cheapest way of making
ice, leaving the first cost out of consideration, as no
chemicals whatever are required, only a charcoal or
coke fire;; other fuel will do, but is said not to be so
good.
There is an agent in London, but the machines are
only advertised in the particular papers which go to
hot countries.

I have unfortunately lost the drawings, or would send one for you to engrave.

W. B. STANLEY, 443, Hackney-road.

noticed is that known by the name of reclining dial, SIR, The last kind of sun-dial necessary to be and it is such as may be made upon a plane which house or church. If the plane exactly faces the S., reclines or leans back, like, for instance, the roof of a and merely reclines from the zenith, the calculation is easy, as well as the structure; the only thing necessary to do is to find how many degrees it reclines from the zenith, and to make it liken vertical dial of reclines must be added to the latitude, and then the a different latitude. So many degrees as the plane Thus, supposing the

dial made for that latitude.

plane reclines 10° from the zenith, the latitude must be reckoned as 10° more-namely, 61° 30'-and then the dial made-llke a vertical south dial; but if the plane declines as well as reclines, The calculation and "HOW TO KEEP THE CLOCK RIGHT." the structure require more care, and for this reason we seldom if ever see a dial of this kind. It may, howSIR, Such is the title of a book recently published, ever, be of service to know how to make one. The first and referred to by "FR.A.S." in his article on "Tran- thing to do is to find the reclination of the plane, roof. sits," in your journal of last week. "F.R.A.S." says or slanting wall, and this may be done by applying a he has never seen the book. I have, and shall be carpenter's rule to the slant, and opening it till the glad to give him and your readers in general some information about it, so that in stating my opinion I be known by a common level. The angle may then other leg is on a level with the horizon, which may may compare notes with any other of your readers be easily (measured. The declination may be found who, like myself, have been captivated by its title and by a magnetic needle, as directed page 460. We will become the possessor of a copy. The result of a dili- suppose, for the sake of showing how the problem gent study of it has been to me one of disappoint- may be solved, that the reclination from the zenith is ment. In theory the plan suggested is a capital one, 200, and the declination to be from the S. towards the but beyond theory, impracticable. No doubt the E. 30°. Our object must be to find five things: (1) the labour of the author in producing tables of the places latitude and longitude of the place where it would be of 350 stars has been very great, and in this respect a horizontal dial, (2) the distance of our 12 o'clock line great credit is due to him. His plan is to fix a small from the perpendicular, (3) the distance of the meritelescope permanently, so that it shall always point to dian of the plane from our 12 o'clock line, (4) the elevaa zone of the Heavens extending from 50° to 53° N.P.D., tion of the style, (5) the hour-arcs. We may find the and of course pointing as near as possible to the latitude and longitude of the place by the terrestrial meridian. So far, so good. By this means the tele- globe. If we elevate the N. pole to our latitude 51°, scope, pointing so near to the zenith, the chance of we must then screw the quadrant of altitude over the error is reduced almost to a minimum, and the error zenith 38° from the pole, and bring the end of it to when once discovered will be the same for every ob- the degree of the plane's declination, which in this with the greatest ease. But now comes the funniest bring the meridian of Greenwich to the brazen meriservation and always, and the observation corrected case is 30° from the S. towards the E. We must then part of the affair. The author says in his title page dian, and count upwards from the wooden horizon on that his "tables are arranged to show, by the use of a the quadrant of altitude 20°, which is the reclination little arithmetic, the mean solar time," &c., and at p. 8, of the plane from the zenith. Having made a mark he says, "The tables have been so arranged so as on this part of the globe, we must bring it to the to be readily used by those who are not astronomers, brazen meridian, We shall then know the latitude and whose acquaintance with mathematics is limited and longitude, which is 14° S. and 30° E. Now, since to the knowledge of a little arithmetic." Will it be the elevation of the style must always be equal to the believed, after such a statement, that the 350 stars latitude, we shall by this means know to what height whose places are given are most of them stars not to raise it. We shall also know the difference of time visible to the naked eye, being stars of the 7th and between this place and London-namely, 2 hours8th magnitudes, some of the 6th, a few of the 3rd and which we shall afterwards make use of in finding the 4th, and only one of the first? Even if these 350 were width of the hour-arcs. Again, since the plane on all the stars known in that zone of the Heavens to pass which we suppose our dial to the meridian in the course of 24 hours, when two or be made reclines from the three happen to cross the wire within one or two zenith, the 12 o'clock line will minutes of each other, how can it be known which is not be the perpendicular, as each star, especially if, owing to the state of the sky, in declining dials, but a little A a glimpse of the transit of one only is obtained? For distance from it; and in order instance, under 23h. R.A., I find one star's pl ace to ascertain this distance, we given as 43m. 298.; the next, 47m. 458.; the next, shall find it convenient to 48m. 15s.; and the next, 49m. 228. If your clock were work it out by the formula in accurate, you might argue from the clock to the star, Spherical Trigonometry. In Fig. 1 let A be 90o C = and know what particular star was on the wire; but 30°, the declination, A C 200, the reclination. Here, you could not argue from the star to the clock as to its then, we have two angles and a side, and we can find correctness. But instead of the number of stars A B, the distance of the 12 o'clock line from the perincluded in that zone being limited to 350, it contains pendicular:-Thus, R: sin. A C:: tan, C: tan AB more than 12000, at least 2000 of which are visible in which is 11° 10. Again, by the globe we find that the a small telescope. How, then, can even an astronomer place where the dial would be a horizontal one is in know what particular star is on the wire at any Africa, 140 S. and 30° E. This, converted into time instant, unless he argues from his clock to the star? by dividing by 15, gives 2 hours' difference; and we whereas the design of this book is to enable anyone may therefore find the distance of the meridian of "not an astronomer" to argue from the star to the the plane from our 12 o'clock line by the same formula clock! I cannot see how the book can be very useful-namely, R sin. lat. 14° tan. 300 tan. dist., for transit purposes, even to accomplished astrono- which is equal to 7° 57′; and this, added to the former mers. As to persons who are not astronomers, the 11° 10' 19° 7', is the distance of the substiler line idea is out of the question. I beg respectfully to enter from the perpendicular. The last thing to do is to my protest against the misleading statement I have find the hour-arcs; and the simplest way of doing quoted. this is to use the same formula as the preceding, which we also use to compute the hour-arcs on a hori zontal dial; and where the time is an aliquot part of 12, the process is easy. We must take the meridian or substiler line as the beginning of the reckoning, and having marked all the distances on the dial, we

LUKE THE LABOURER.

BRONCHITIS.

He

SIR,-I wish, with your permission, to offer a few remarks to "A Three Years' Sufferer" from this distressing disease. In the first place he should at once change his diet, avoiding much animal food, and living principally upon eggs and farinaceous food. should partake largely of pearl barley and groats well boiled in chicken broth or in mutton broth, skimming the latter carefully, and taking it entirely free from fat. Gruel, carefully made, and sweetened with honey, should be taken every evening instead of supper. This may be occasionally varied by eating roasted apples, of good quality, slightly sweetened. Drink three times every day and three hours after every meal, a teacupful of the infusion of the common horehound. Keep warmly clad, and shun late hours and dissipation. Above all, keep the feet warm and dry, and wear next to the skin a flannel shirt. Do not wear mufflers, but gradually leave them off, and keep the chest warm by buttoning the coat up to the neck. This should always be done in severe weather. Ventilation should be particularly attended to, especially that of the bed-room. There are many ways of doing this without causing any draught, and it is as well to observe that if this important matter be not attended to, any other remedies will be almost useless, since it is through the afflicted organs (the bronchi) that the air is carried on to the lungs. In some diseases,

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can then number them; but we must be cautious to number with the right figures. In the case supposed, the meridian line must be numbered X., the next line towards the right hand XI., and so on; but on the left hand of the substiler line we must number them IX., VIII, &c. If, however the longitude does not

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