Dantzig; but he seems to have devoted most of his time to the study of mathematics, natural philosophy, natural history, and geography. In 1765, he accepted an offer made to him by the Russian government, to inspect and report upon the new colonies founded on the banks of the Volga; and the matter of his report is said to have been so good as to have given to the empress Catharine suggestions for her great code of laws. His irritable temper soon involved him in difficulties with the Russian government; and in the following year he repaired to England, where the exertions of some of his scientific friends in London soon procured for him the office of teacher of natural history, and of the French and German languages, at an educational institution for dissenting clergymen at Warrington, in Lancashire. He retained this post until 1772, when he received, through the influence of Mr. Banks, the offer of naturalist to capt. Cook's second expedition to the south seas. In the course of the voyage, his temper seems to have frequently brought him into unpleasant collision with the other officers; and after the return of Capt. Cook's vessels in July, 1774, a controversy arose between F. and lord Sandwich on the question as to who should write the narrative of the voyage. It was settled that F. should write the philosophical, and Cook the nautical parts of the work; but further difficulties arose, and Cook's journal appeared alone. In 1776, in association with his son, he published a work (in Latin) on the botany of the expedition; and in 1778 his Observations faites dans un Voyage autour du Monde sur la Géographie Physique, l'Histoire Naturelle, et la Philosophie Morale. In the latter year, he returned to Germany, and was soon afterwards made professor of natural history and mineralogy at Halle, where he remained until his death. Besides the above works, he published De Bysso Antiquorum, 1775; Zoologia Indica, 1781; Geschichte der Entdeckungen und Schifffahrten im Norden, 1784 (Eng. and French trans.), etc.

FORSTER, JOHN, an English political and historical writer, was born at Newcastle in 1812. He was educated for the bar, but early, like so many other law-students, devoted himself to periodical writing. In this sphere of literature he displayed more than usual ability; and his political articles in the London Examiner, for which he commenced writing in 1834, attracted more attention than is usually bestowed on newspaper leaders. There was a vigor and point about them, coupled with a truth, consistency, and outspoken honesty, which obtained a wide renown for the paper. F. succeeded Dickens for a short time as editor of the Daily News, and was editor of the Examiner for ten years. He is the author of many admirable biographical and historical essays, and we are indebted to him for much new and valuable information tending to elucidate obscure points, and correct erroneous notions about the times and statesmen of the English commonwealth. It is to this period of history that Forster chiefly directed his studies, and no person desirous of properly understanding it, should neglect his History of the Grand Remonstrance; Arrest of the Five Members; Sir John Eliot, a Biography; and Lives of the Statesmen of the Commonwealth. His literary memoirs are also excellent. The chief are The Life and Times of Oliver Goldsmith (1848); Walter Savage Landor, 2 vols. (1868); The Life of Charles Dickens, 3 vols. (1871-1874); and the first volume of a Life of Swift (1876). F's style is clear, forcible, and elegant. He was appointed secretary to the commissioners in lunacy in 1856, and a commissioner in lunacy in 1861. F. died in 1876.

FORSTER, WILLIAM, 1784-1854; b. England; married a sister of Thomas Powell Buxton; became a preacher in the society of Friends, and labored as such in the United States, England, and France. In 1846, he was commissioned by the Quaker yearly meeting in London to present an address on slavery and the slave trade to rulers of Christian nations, in the prosecution of which he had interviews with nearly all the monarchs of Europe, with the president of the United States, and a number of the governors of southern states.

FORSTER, The Right Hon. WILLIAM EDWARD, M.P., son of William Forster, who was for more than 50 years a minister of the society of Friends, and died on an anti-slavery mission in Tennessee, was born at Bradpole, Dorset, on July 11, 1818. He was educated at the Friends' school, Tottenham, and became a worsted manufacturer at Bradford. In 1859, he contested Leeds unsuccessfully in the liberal interest, and in 1861 was elected for Bradford, which he represented for years. He filled the post of under-secretary for the colonies from Nov., 1865, till July, 1866, and was vice-president of the committee of council on education, and fourth charity commissioner, from 1868 to 1874. Mr. F. acquired a great reputation from the admirable manner in which he piloted through the house of commons the education bill of 1870, the ballot bill of 1870; and, as Irish secretary in 1880, the Land Act of 1881. He resigned 1882; d. 1886.

FORSYTH, a co. in n. Georgia, on the Chattahoochee river; 297 sq.m.; pop. '90, 11,155, incl. colored. The surface is hilly, and in some places mountainous. The soil is fertile. There are valuable minerals, such as copper, silver, and gold. Co. seat, Cumming

FORSYTH, a co. in n.w. North Carolina; on the Yadkin river; 372 sq.m.; pop. '90, 28,434, incl. colored. The surface is rough, and the soil fertile. Productions, corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, etc. Co. seat, Winston.

Fort.

FORSYTH, JOHN, 1780-1841; b. Va.; graduated at Princeton, and admitted to the bar at Augusta, Ga., in 1802. In 1808, he was state attorney-general; in 1812, member of congress, and in 1818, U. S. senator. In 1823, he was minister to Spain, and the negotiator of the treaty for the annexation of Florida to the United States. He was again in congress both as representative and senator, and in 1827 was governor of Georgia. Under Jackson and Van Buren he was secretary of state.

FORSYTHIA, a genus of shrubs of the order oleacea. The F. viridissima and F. suspensa, small Chinese shrubs, now commonly cultivated, are hardy, and noticeable for their yellow flowers, which appear before the leaves in the spring. The name is in honor of a distinguished Scotch gardener, William Forsyth.

FORT, a term of peculiar meaning in British N. America, applied to a trading-post in the wilderness with reference to its indispensable defenses, however slight, against the surrounding barbarism. It has thus been often employed to designate merely a palisaded log-hut, the central oasis of civilization in a desert larger, it may be, than Scotland.

FORT, FORTRESS (from Lat. fortis, strong), a stronghold, made secure by walls, and generally further protected by a ditch and parapet. For the construction of forts, see FORTIFICATION.

FORT ADJUTANT, an English officer stationed at any fortress-where the gar rison is often composed of drafts from different corps-analogous to that of adjutant in a regiment. He is responsible to the commandant for the internal discipline, and the appropriation of the necessary duties to particular corps. Fort adjutants are staff-officers, and so receive a certain allowance per day in addition to their ordinary regimental pay.

FORTALEZA, or VILLA DO FORTE (see CEARÁ), a t. of Brazil in the province and on the river Ceará, 3° 42′ s., and 38° 30' w. Built on a cliff overlooking a small bay or harbor, the town has regular and well-paved streets. There is a good export trade in sugar, rubber, hides, etc. Pop. 1892, 35,000.

FORT ANN, a town and village in Washington co., N. Y., on the Champlain canal, and the Delaware and Hudson railroad; 61 m. n. of Troy; pop. of town, '90, 2696. There was an English fort here built in 1709, taken from the Americans in 1777. The village is on the shore of lake George, is a resort for travelers, and has knitting and wood pulp mills, a bank, several churches, and a newspaper.

FORT ATKINSON, a city in Jefferson co., Wis., on the Rock river and the Chicago and Northwestern railroad. It contains a public library, banks, several churches, high school, and manufactories, and has electric lights, two public parks, and weekly newspapers. Pop. '90, 2283.

FORT AUGUSTUS, a village at the s. end of Loch Ness, 29 m. s.w. of Inverness. A fort, intended to overawe the Highlands, and having accommodation for 200 to 300 men, was built here soon after the rebellion of 1715, on a small eminence. It was taken by the rebels in 1745, and became the headquarters of the duke of Cumberland after Culloden. In 1867 the fort and crown property adjoining were sold to lord Lovat, who has since converted it into a Benedictine educational institute.

FORT BEND, a co. in s.e. Texas on the Brazos river, traversed by the Gulf, Colorado, and San F. railroad; 889 sq. m.; pop. '90, 10,586. Co. seat, Richmond.

FORT DODGE, city and co. seat of Webster co., Ia.; on the Des Moines river and the Illinois Central and several other railroads; 82 miles n. of Des Moines. It contains a U. S. court building, county court-house, city hospital, public library, several public parks, waterworks owned by the city, several national banks, high school, Tobin college, churches of the leading denominations, and daily and weekly newspapers. There are over twenty large coal mines in the vicinity, with gypsum and building stone quarries, potteries, oatmeal and stucco mills, and manufactories of brick and shoes. Good power is derived from the river. Pop. '90, 4871.

FORT DONELSON AND FORT HENRY, the first on the Tennessee and the last on the Cumberland river, near the line between Tennessee and Kentucky, about 12 m. apart. The works were built in 1861 by the confederates, and strongly manned. Early in 1862 the union army undertook their capture. Feb. 2, a naval force, followed by land troops, left Cairo, arriving the next morning before Fort Henry, which was defended by 3000 men commanded by Gen. Tilghman. On the 6th a combined attack was made, the naval force commanded by Commodore A. H. Foote, and the land force by Brig. Gen. U. S. Grant. The fort was taken by the naval forces in an hour, some time before the land troops arrived. On the 12th, Grant moved upon Fort Donelson, which had received large re-enforcements, including nearly all the garrison of Fort Henry, and the commands of Gens. Pillow, Buckner, and Floyd. On the 13th, Grant began a cannonade. The next day an attack was made by the fleet, but within two hours every gun-boat was disabled, 54 men were killed, and the fleet was compelled to withdraw. The confederates, hoping to secure a retreat towards Nashville, attempted a surprise on the morning of the 15th. They were promptly met, and an indecisive action continued until 3 P.M. At that hour Grant ordered a general advance, drove the confederates within their own lines, and gained a position within their works. About 2,000 on each side were killed or wounded in the course of the day. Grant prepared for a general

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154

assault the next morning, but the confederate leaders concluded to surrender. During the night, Floyd with about 1500 men, Forrest with a few hundred, and Pillow and his staff, escaped, leaving Buckner in command. On the morning of the 16th, Buckner sent to Grant asking the appointment of commissioners to settle upon the terms of capitulation and for an armstice until the next day at noon. Grant returned on the instant the now famous reply: "No terms other than unconditional surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." Buckner had no alternative, and at once surrendered the fort with 10,000 men, 48 guns, and a great quantity of ammunition. The terms of Grant's answer were universally recognized by the loyal public as a vivid expression of their feelings; and from the similarity of the initial letters of his name (Ulysses Simpson) he came to be called "Unconditional Surrender Grant." FORT DUQUESNE. See PITTSBURG.

FORTÉ, in music, the Italian term for loud; fortissimo, as loud as possible.

FORT EDWARD, a town and village in Washington co., N. Y., on the Hudson river, the Champlain canal, and the Delaware and Hudson railroad. A dam across the Hudson here affords great water-power. The village has extensive paper and pulp mills, electric street railroad, electric lights, gravity system of waterworks, national bank, several churches, newspapers, and the Fort Edward collegiate institute. It is the site of a fort built in 1709, and rebuilt in 1755. It was a place of much importance in the French and Indian war, and was repeatedly occupied by opposing forces in the revolu tion. The name was given in honor of Edward, duke of York. Pop. '90, town, 4424. FORTESCUE, Sir JOHN, was an English lawyer in the time of Henry VI., descended from an ancient family in Devonshire. He was educated at Exeter college, Oxford. During the reign of Henry VI. he was three times appointed one of the gover nors of Lincoln's Inn. In 1441, he was a king's sergeant at law, and in the following year chief-justice of the king's bench. As a judge, Fortescue is highly commended for his wisdom, gravity, and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great favor with the king, who is said to have given him substantial proofs of esteem and regard. He held his office during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI., to whom he steadily adhered; and having faithfully served that unfortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of treason in the first parliament of Edward IV. When Henry subsequently fled into Scotland, he is supposed to have appointed Fortescue, who appears to have accompanied him in his flight, chancellor of England. In 1463, Fortescue accom panied queen Margaret and her court in their exile on the continent, and returned with them afterwards to England. During their wanderings abroad, the chancellor wrote, for the instruction of the young prince Edward. his celebrated work, De laudi bus legum Angliæ, a masterly eulogy of the laws of England. On the defeat of the Lancastrian party he made his submission to Edward IV., from whom he received a general pardon dated Westminster, Oct. 13, 1473. He died at an advanced age, but the date has not been ascertained. A valuable and learned work by F. written in Eng. lish, was published in 1714, discussing the difference between an absolute and limited monarchy, as regards the English constitution. Of Fortescue's other writings, which were numerous, the most important are: Genealogy of the House of Lancaster; Genealogia Regum Scotia; A Dialogue between Understanding and Faith; and A Prayer Book which savors much of the Times we live in.

On

FORT FISHER, an earthwork in North Carolina, on the peninsula between the ocean and Cape Fear river, defending the entrance to the port of Wilmington. In the last year of the late civil war this was the only port open to the confederates, and it became a matter of importance to the unionists to close it. To effect this purpose, a formidable fleet left Hampton Roads, Dec. 13, 1864, and arrived off Federal Point on the 15th. the 23d, Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, who was chief in command, prepared to attack, and did so the next day. One of his reliances was on a hulk laden with 215 tons of powder, to be exploded as near to the fort as it could be brought. This hulk was brought to a point 600 ft. from the shore and about 3,000 ft. from the fort, and fired. The explosion did no appreciable damage to the fort. The fleet then opened fire, and in a little over an hour the guns of the fort were silenced. On the 25th the bombardment was renewed, and under cover of it a reconnoitering force went within 150 yards of the fort, but an assault was deemed unadvisable, and the troops were re-embarked, and returned to James river. The fleet, however, remained, and Jan. 2d and 3d, 1865, 8,000 men were assembled at Bermuda Hundred, under command of Gen. A. H. Terry. Embarking on the 4th and 5th, they landed on the 13th under cover of the fire of the vessels. There was hard fighting on the 14th and 15th, resulting in the capture of the fort, with over 2,000 prisoners and 169 guns. The union loss was 110 killed and 536 wounded. The confederates then blew up their remaining works, and the control of the mouth of Cape Fear river passed from their hands.

FORT GARRY. See WINNIPEG.

FORTH, a river of Scotland, rises in the n. w. of Stirlingshire, in the mountains between Loch Katrine and Loch Lomond, from two main branches, the Duchray, 16 m.

Fortification.

long, from the e. side of Ben Lomond, and the Avendhu, 12 m. long, flowing through Lochs Chon, Dhu, and Ard. These streams unite at Aberfoyle, and issue from the mountains. The F. then runs e. and s.e. along the borders of Perth and Stirling shires.

FORTH, FIRTH OF, an arm of the sea, or the estuary of the river Forth, lies between the counties of Clackmannan, Perth, and Fife on the n.; and those of Stirling and the Lothians on the s. It first extends 6 m. s.e. from where the Devon joins the Forth; then, with an average breadth of 24 m., it runs 10 m. to Queensferry, where a great railway bridge, completed in 1889, spans the firth, and finally it extends 36 m. n.e., gradually expanding in width to 15 m.

FORT HOWARD, a city in Brown co., Wis., on Fox River, a mile from the mouth, and on several railroads, opposite the city of Green Bay; pop. '90, 4754. There are extensive railroad shops, but lumber is the principal article of trade.

FORTIFICATION, a term derived through the Italian from the Latin fortis and facere, means literally the "making strong" of any place whatever, be it a town, an arsenal, a camp, a mere house, or the extended position of an army occupying a tract of country, a province, or even a kingdom. In effect, the term is limited to strengthening by means of walls, ditches, or other stationary obstructions, aided more or less by artillery, which may impede hostile advance.

F. cannot pretend to render strongholds impregnable, for no works, however skillfully devised, will withstand the continued fire of well-directed artillery, backed by energy and discretion on the part of assailants: its aim is to enable a beleaguered garrison to hold out, without losing ground, until it can be relieved by the advance of allies operating in the field. In fortifying a place, the engineer usually proceeds upon some defined system of entourage; but if he hope for success, his science must be sufficiently elastic to adapt itself to all the natural features of the locality; and from this it follows that a system perfect in theory, and of universal application, will in practice have to undergo modifications, differing in almost every instance.

The prime element of all F. is the parapet (from Italian para, before; petto, the breast), which may be a wooden stockade, a wall of masonry, or a mound of earth, and is intended to give more or less cover to the defender from the projectiles of his adversary, while he is still able to use his own weapons against the latter. The simplest form of parapet being the mound of earth, the ground adjoining it would probably be dug up for its formation, and from this would almost unconsciously ensue the ditch, as an additional means of separating the assailant and the assailed. Starting, then, from this parapet and ditch or fosse, as the elementary forms of defense, it will be well, before proceeding to describe the ancient and modern systems, to give concise definitions of the parts, adjuncts, and technical names of a fortification. See adjoining illus.

The first duty of a defender is to prevent, as far as possible, the enemy's near approach to any of his works. In developed systems, this is sought to be done by bastions, etc. (of which hereafter), which stand out at angles to the general line, so as to afford a fire commanding all parts. But as cases occasionally happen of troops, defended by a mere straight parapet and ditch, having to withstand the advance of the enemy, it is necessary to adopt every measure which can obstruct his path, harass his advance, and, if possible, aid in cutting off his retreat in the event of failure.

Abattis (q.v.) are among the simplest obstacles to be improvised, consisting of trees cut down, shorn of their leaves and smaller twigs, having their branches pointed, and then laid close together, in one or more lines parallel to the works, branches outward, and trunks imbedded or pinned down in the earth. Accoutred troops must remove these before they can pass, and the operation of removal under fire from the besieged is a very serious one indeed.

Checaux-de-frise (q.v. for derivation) are pointed iron or wooden rods fixed crosswise in a wooden beam, and until removed offering a complete obstacle to progress. They are very useful in a breach or other unclosed portion of a work, and are now made in pieces, so as to be portable, and yet ready for immediate putting together. A chevalde-frise is usually 12 ft. long, with a beam 9 in. square. See fig. 23.

Chausse-trapes, or Caltrops (q.v.), give serious annoyance to troops advancing, and are especially dangerous in cases of night-attack. Their use was, however, more general formerly than it is now. See fig. 33.

Trous-de-loup (wolf-traps), which are deep holes dug, and armed at the bottom with spikes, young trees cut down and their stumps pointed, inverted harrows, broken swordblades, bayonets, or any similar annoyances, are resorted to as expedients to gain time, and thereby insure a more deadly fire on the assailants. They are frequently constructed in the glacis of a work. See fig. 24.

The

Fraises and Stockades represent another form of additional defense, and are stout posts driven horizontally or perpendicularly into the earth, in long close rows. stockade forms likewise, at times, a good substitute for the parapet itself, particularly when the direct fire of artillery is unlikely to be brought against it, as in warfare with barbarous tribes, or in a work at the very crest of a steep hill. In this case it is usually constructed of two rows of strong palisades firmly imbedded in the ground: the outer nearly a foot square, planted with three-inch intervals between; the second about six inches in diameter, closing these spaces behind. Every second small palisade is cut short a few inches, so as to leave a loophole for musketry-fire. See figs. 26, 29, 80. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARAPET.-The object of the parapet being to defend, or

defilade a certain portion of ground behind it, its height must be calculated so that mis siles passing across its crest shall fail to strike the troops mustered behind. The minimum width defiladed to allow of safe communication for troops behind, and actually defending, is 30 ft.; but if the men have to be drawn up in line, not less than 90 ft. will suffice. To ascertain the height of parapet necessary in any case, three points are selected: first, the place at which the parapet is to be constructed; second, the most elevated spot accessible to the enemy and within range; third, a point removed from the parapet at a distance sufficient to protect the troops. If, now, a line be drawn connecting points 6 ft. over the second and third positions, and a perpendicular be erected at the site of the parapet, the intersection will give the height of the parapet.

From this, the disadvantage will be apparent of constructing a parapet within range of higher ground, as for every extra foot of elevation in the commanding rise a proportionate addition must be made to the height of the parapet. In practice, the ordinary parapet for a level is 8 ft. high, which allows for the depressed trajectory of a spending ball. See PROJECTILES. If the parapet be raised on ground above the attacking posi tion, it may be lowered, according to the angle, to about 6 ft. 6 in., the height necessary for a man standing up to be thoroughly protected. On the other hand, if the position be lower than the point occupied by the assailant, the parapet must be raised; as 12 ft. forms the limit to which a parapet can conveniently be thrown up, further height necessary for protection is obtained by sinking the ground to be defiladed before the parapet's base. In measuring for these heights, the instruments used are boning-rods, which are fixed in the ground at the point favorable to the enemy and at the limit of the ground to be protected by the parapet, with the normal height of a man marked on them; a third rod, at the place where the parapet is to be erected, is then marked at the point where the line of sight between the normal points on the two others intersects it, and so shows the height of the parapet.

The foregoing parapet has been provided only as a straight breastwork, deriving its safety solely from its own fire in a direct line upon the besiegers; but in practice such a rampart would be exposed to the disadvantage of holding but little command over the scarp or escarp (part cut away) at its foot; so that, if approached under cover, an enemy could readily lodge himself therein. To guard against this, a work is flanked, so that the fire of one part shall take in flank an enemy advancing against another part. In a flanked defense of this sort, the angles which project towards the country are technically termed salient angles; while those which extend inwards are called re-entering angles. The flanked parapet has often, likewise, the power of defilading larger spaces than the simple line of parapet, since the salient angles can, perhaps, be brought on elevated ground; while the re-entering angles, though with less elevation, may in some degree compensate that defect by greater distance from the front. A disadvantage of flanked defenses is, that the hostile fire crosses the parapet at a less angle than in the straight line, and may, therefore, be more deadly; indeed, the object of the assailant will always be to obtain an enfilade fire along one or more parapets of the defense. To avoid this, the engineer who constructs the works must ascertain minutely the elevation of the surrounding points, and make his salients at such angles that the prolongation of his parapets towards the enemy ɛhall always fall on low ground, whence no command can be obtained.

Now, where the salient angle becomes somewhat acute, and there is an enemy on both fronts, the soldiers defending the right parapet, and standing on its banquette, would be exposed to a reverse or back fire from the enemy in front of the left parapet, beyond the defilading of which they would doubtless be. As a remedy, an internal parapet, called a traverse, or, from its duty, a parados, is raised between the parapets of the salient, its height being determined on precisely the same principles as were made use of in regard to the original parapets.

Where both the faces of the salient are unavoidably so placed as to be enfiladed, a small work, called a bonnet, is constructed at the angle, which consists in the parapet being so raised up to an extra height of 12 ft. if necessary, and at the same time widened, that the banquette shall be defiladed. If a height of 12 ft. is insufficient to defilade the whole length of the banquette, traversing parapets must be raised at right angles to the face of the work, and within it, at such distances that the whole may be safe: of course, the height of the bonnet and of the traverses must be decided on rules analogous to those explained. The increased height of the parapet of the bonnet renders it necessary to have two or more banquettes at that portion of the work, with steps to aid the ascent.

In inclosed works-i.e., in works entirely surrounded by parapets-the position of the parados is of vital importance; and they have often to be devised with great ingenu. ity, so as to protect the defenders from reverse fire in any direction, and at the same time not to prevent necessary communication between different portions of the fortress. Relief means the height of any point in a work above the plane of construction, which may be the line of sight or the bottom of the ditch. În the latter case, the relief of the parapet is an important item in estimating the resisting power of a work, as it represents the vertical equivalent of the obstacle which will be offered to a foe.

When the relief of the parapet's crest has been determined, its thickness becomes