THE

INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPÆDIA.

F

IROLA, a genus of gasteropodous mollusks, of the order heteropoda, entirely destitute of shell-although there is a small branchial shell in the nearly allied genus carinaria; of a very elongated form, having the mouth situated at the extremity of a proboscis; tentacula wanting, or merely rudimentary; and generally remarkable for great transparency of substance, often enlivened with golden spots. They swim by means of the foot, which is compressed into a fin, are often to be seen at the surface of the water in calm weather, and are abundant in the warmer temperate and tropical seas. The oxygenation of the blood is supposed to take place in part through the delicate tissues, as there are no special breathing organs but a ciliated band.

FIROZPUR, or FEROZEPORE, a district in India in the Lahore division of the lieutenant-governorship of the Punjab, on the river Sutlej; 4302 sq. m.; pop. 1891, 887,000. The productions are wheat, barley, millet, cotton, tobacco, etc. The Lahore and Ludiana road is the chief route of trade. The chief town is Firozpur, on the s.e. bank of the Sutlej; pop. '91, 50,400. The city is surrounded by a low brick wall, and the main streets are well paved. It is also an important military station.

FIRST-BORN (Heb. Bekor, Gr. prototokos, Lat. primogenitus), in scriptural use, signifies the first male offspring, whether of man or of other animals. By a principle of the Mosaic law, and indeed of the common law of nature, it was established that the firstlings of all the produce of creatures, whether animate or inanimate, were in some sense due to the Creator as a recognition of his supreme dominion. See FIRST-FRUITS. Under the title arising from this recognition are to be classed many observances regarding the first-born of animate beings, whether rational or irrational, which prevailed among eastern nations generally, or which are specially established by the Mosaic law: 1. The first-born male, whether of man or of animals, was devoted from the time of birth to God. In the case of first-born male children, the law required that, within one month after birth, they should be redeemed by an offering not exceeding in value five shekels of silver (Exod. xiii. 13). If the child died before the expiration of thirty days, the obligation of redemption ceased; but if that term were completed, the obligation was not extinguished by the subsequent death of the infant. This redemption took place according to a fixed ceremonial. The first-born male of animals also, whether clean or unclean, was equally regarded as devoted to God. The first-born of clean animals, if free from blemish, was to be delivered to the priests within twelve months after birth, to be sacrificed to the Lord (Deut. xv. 21); nor was it permitted to any but the priests to partake of the flesh of such victims (Num. xviii. 18). If the animal were blemished, it was not to be sacrificed, but to be eaten at home (Deut. xv. 22). The firstborn of unclean animals, not being a fit subject for sacrifice, was either to be put to death, or to be redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of its value (Lev. xvii. 27; Num. xviii. 15). If not redeemed, it was to be sold, and the price given to the priests. 2. Primogeniture, both by the patriarchal and by the Mosaic law, had certain privileges attached to it, the chief of which were the headship of the family, and a double portion of the inheritance. Before the time of Moses, however, it was in the power of the father to decide which among all his sons should be considered the first-born.

Among other nations, considerable variety existed as to the succession of children to the inheritance of their parent, for the discussion of which, see FAMILY, SUCCESSION, PRIMOGENITURE, ETC.

FIRST-FRUITS (Heb. reshith, Gr. protogennemata and aparchai, Lat. primitia), that portion of the fruits of the earth and other natural produce, which, by the usage of the Jews and other ancient nations, was offered to God, as an acknowledgment of his supreme dominion, and a thanksgiving for his bounty. Among the Jews, the institution of first-fruits comprised both public and private offerings.

Of the former class, there were three principal offerings: the first was at the opening of the corn-harvest. On the day after the passover Sabbath, the 16th of the month Nisan,

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a sheaf of new corn, which was cut and gathered with much solemnity, was carried to the holy place, and there waved before the altar (Lev. xxiii. 5 and foll.); nor was it permitted to commence the harvest-work till after this solemn acknowledgment of the gift of fruitfulness. Again, at the feast of Pentecost, two loaves of leavened bread, made from the flour of the new harvest, were waved, with a similar form of worship, before the altar (Ex. xxxiv. 22). Thirdly, at the Feast of Tabernacles, in the 7th month, was held the great feast of the gathered-in harvest, the final acknowledgment of the bounty of God in the fruits of the year (xxiii. 16).

Besides these public offerings of first-fruits on the part of the entire people, individual Jews were bound to private offerings, each upon his own behalf. 1. A cake of the first dough of the year was to be offered to the Lord (Num. xv. 21). 2. The "first of all the fruits" were to be placed in a basket, and carried to the appointed place, where the basket was to be offered with a prescribed form of words, commemorative of the sojourn of Israel in Egypt, and of his deliverance by the strong hand (Deut. xxvi. 2 and foll.). All these offerings were divided into two classes-the first, which were called Bicurim, comprised the various kinds of raw produce, of which, although the law seems to contemplate all fruits, seven sorts only were considered by the Jewish doctors to fall under the obligation of first-fruit offering-viz., wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. The law lays down no rule as to the quantity of the first-fruit offering; and it would be tedious to enter into the many questions regarding it which have been raised by the commentators. It was customary for the offerers to make their oblations in companies of twenty-four, and with a singularly striking and effective ceremonial.

The second class of first-fruit offerings were called terumoth, and comprised the prod uce of the year in the various forms in which it is prepared for human use, as wine, wool, bread, oil, date-honey, dried onions, and cucumbers. As to the quantity of these offerings, and the persons on whom the obligation fell, there are many discussions, for which we must refer to the biblical authorities.

Under the kings, and again after the captivity, much laxity crept into the observance of this practice, which Nehemiah labored to revive in its primitive exactness. Offerings analogous to the Jewish first-fruits became usual very early in the Christian church, as is clear from a passage in Irenæus (Adv. Hær., b. iv. c. 17 and 34); but the extent to which it prevailed, and the amount and general character of the oblation, are exceedingly uncertain. It appears to have been merged in the legal provision established by 'the emperors.

The medieval ecclesiastical impost known under the name of primitia, or first-fruits, and sometimes of annates or annalia, was entirely different. By the word, in its mediaval and modern sense, is meant a tax imposed by the popes on persons presented directly by the pope to those benefices which, by the canonical rules, or in virtue of privileges claimed by them, fall within the papal patronage. Persons so presented were required to contribute to the Roman see the first-fruits (that is, the income of the first year) of their benefice. During the residence of the popes at Avignon, when the papal necessities compelled the use of every means for eking out a precarious revenue, the impost was sought to be extended to every benefice; and this claim was the subject of many contests, especially in Germany and in England, where the claim, so far as regarded direct papal presentation, had existed from the reign of king John. Henry VIII., by two successive statutes (25 Henry VIII. c. 20, and 26 Henry VIII. c. 3), withdrew the right of first-fruits from the pope, in order to transfer it to the king; and he established a special court for the administration of first-fruits, which, however, was soon disused. In the reign of Anne, the revenues arising from this impost in England were vested in a board, to be applied for the purpose of supplementing the incomes of small benefices (2 Anne, c. 11). A similar change was introduced in Ireland by the 2 Geo. I. c. 15; but in the latter kingdom the payment was entirely abolished by the 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 27. In France, this tax was abolished by the "pragmatic sanction" enacted at Bourges in 1438, and subsequently by the concordat of Leo X. with Francis I. in 1512. In Spain, it ceased partially in the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, and finally under Charles V. In Germany, it formed one of the first among the centum gravamina presented to the emperor in 1521, and the claim ceased altogther from that period.

FIRTH. See FRITH.

FISCH, GEORGES, D.D., b. Switzerland, 1814; pastor at Vevay. He afterwards joined the French evangelical church, and became the successor of Adolphe Monod at Lyons. In 1855, he went to Paris, and became the colleague of Edmond de Pressensé, his brother-in-law. He was a director of the evangelical society of France. He d. 1881. FISCHART, JOHN, a very extraordinary German author, was b. either at Mainz or Strasburg, probably about the year 1545. Regarding his life, we know very little. He was by profession a jurist, but his writings exhibit an immense learning and reading in all the departments of human knowledge. About 1570, he made a journey to England. Towards 1580, he was living at Strasburg in terms of close friendship with the eminent book-printer, Bernhard Jobin. During 1581 and 1582, he was advocate to the imperial chamber at Speier, and in 1585 became bailiff of Forbach, where he probably died about 1590. Of the very numerous writings which appeared 1570-90, partly under his own,

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and partly under various fictitious names, about fifty have been proved to be on the whole genuine, though disfigured by interpolations. In respect to others, however, the authorship is doubtful. The original editions of almost all F.'s works are extremely rare, but new ones have recently been published. His most celebrated works are based on foreign models, particularly Rabelais, but there is no servile imitation manifested: a free creative genius works plastically on the materials. To this class belong his Aller Praktick Grossmutter (1572), Affentheurlich Naupengeheurliche Geschichtklitterung von Thaten und Rahten, etc. (1582), Podagrammisch Trostbüchlein (1577), Bienenkorb des Heyl. Römischen Imenschwarms (1579), and Der Heilig Brotkorb (1580). These writings are wholly satirical. With the most inexhaustible humor, he lashes, now the corruptions of the clergy, now the astrological fancies, the dull pedantry, or other follies, public and private, of the time. Next to these stands the outrageously comic work of F.'s-quite original in its conception entitled Flöhatz, Weibertratz (1574). Essentially different in its homely and simple tone is his Das glückhafft Schiff von Zürich, written in verse, and published in 1576 (new edition by Halling, 1828). Similar in point of style are his Psalmen und Geistliche Lieder (1576; new edit. Berlin, 1849). The rest of F.'s numerous writings, partly in prose, partly in verse, are of unequal merit, singularly varied in style and contents; the prose works being in general more complete than the poetic. What gives so high a value to F.'s satirical humor, is the warm and genuine feeling which he exhibits for the moral foundations of all public and private life-viz., religion, "fatherland," and the family, a feeling which betrays itself in his wildest mirth. His works are, moreover, one of the richest sources from whence to draw information with regard to the manners of his time. But perhaps the most extraordinary thing about F. is his treatment of the language. No German author can be compared with him, not even Jean Paul Richter himself. He coins new words and turns of expression, without any regard to analogy, but nevertheless displays the greatest fancy, wit, and erudition in his most arbitrary formations.

FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD, b. Silesia, 1824; graduated at Halle, and taught philosophy at Heidelberg. He has written a number of philosophical works containing delineations of the systems of Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, and Leibnitz. He has also written on Schiller, Shakespeare, and Bacon. F. was called to the university of Jena as professor of philosophy, in 1856 and to Heidelberg in 1872.

FISH, a naval term of various application. The fish is an apparatus of pulleys employed in dragging the flukes of the anchor towards the bow after it has been hoisted. to the cat-head.-Fish-front, or paunch, is a long piece of oak or fir, convex without, concave within, securely fastened on the injured portion of a sprung mast or yard, to which it imparts rigidity. Side-fishes are long pieces of timber dove-tailed on the oppo site sides of a made mast, to give it a circular form and the requisite diameter.

FISH, HAMILTON, LL.D., b. N. Y., 1808; son of Nicholas, who was an officer of the revolutionary army. He was educated at Columbia college, graduated in 1827, and was admitted to the bar three years afterwards. In 1842 he was elected to congress, and in 1848 was chosen governor of the state of New York. In 1851, he succeeded Daniel S. Dickinson as U. S. senator, and thenceforward acted with the republican party. He was appointed secretary of state in 1869, on the resignation of E. B. Washburne, who went as minister to France, and when Grant became a second time president, Fish was reappointed. To him belongs the credit of suggesting the joint high commission with Great Britain in 1871, for the settlement of various difficulties between the two countries, which resulted in the treaty of Washington. He d. in 1893.

FISH, HAMILTO", Jr., b. Albany, N. Y., 1849. He graduated at Columbia coll., 1869, and was private sec. to his father (sec. of state), 1869-70. He graduated at the Columbia coll. law school, 1873; became a member of the state legislature; was aide-de-camp to Gov. Dix; republican leader in the assembly in 1890; and speaker in 1895.

FISH, NICHOLAS, 1758-1833; b. N. Y., and educated at Princeton, N. J. He studied law, and served in the war of 1776 as aide-de-camp and brigade-major, being promoted before the close of the war to be a lieutenant-colonel. He fought at Saratoga, and commanded a corps at Monmouth; he also served in the expedition against the Indians in 1779, and with Lafayette in 1780, and in 1781 was prominent in the operations which preceded the surrender of Cornwallis. He afterwards occupied important civil offices in his native state, and was an alderman in New York city, from 1806, during eleven years. He was also, in 1797, president of the New York society of the Cincinnati.

FISH, NICHOLAS, b. New York, 1846, graduated at Columbia coll., 1867, and Harvard law school, 1869; became asst. sec. of legation at Berlin, 1871; sec. 1874; and minister resident to Belgium, 1882.

FISHBURN, WILLIAM, 1760-1819; he was on the staff of Gen. Anthony Wayne at the capture of Stony Point, N. Y.; in the convention which framed the state constitution of South Carolina; afterwards a member of the legislature of that state.

FISH CULTURE. See PISCICULTURE.

FISHER, GEORGE PARK, D.D.; b. Mass., 1827; graduated at Brown university and studied theology in Yale, Andover, and in Germany. On return he was appointed professor of divinity in Yale college, and ordained pastor of the college church (Congre

gational). Still later he was professor of ecclesiastical history in Yale divinity school. He has published Essays on the Supernatural Origin of Christianity, with Special Reference to the Theories of Renan, Strauss, and the Tübingen School; History of the Reformation; Colonial History of the United States (1892); History of Christian Doctrine (1896), etc. He was one of the editors of The New Englander and of The Yale Review.

FISHER, a co. in n.w. Texas; formed 1876; organized in 1886; intersected by headwaters of the Brazos; 900 sq. m. Pop. '90, 2996. Co. seat, Roby.

FISHER, JOHN, bishop of Rochester, was b. about 1459 at Beverley, in Yorkshire, educated at Michael House college (now incorporated with Trinity college), Cambridge, where he took his degree in 1491, and of which he became master in 1495. Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., charmed by the report of his virtues and learning, next appointed him her chaplain and confessor. 1n 1501, he was elected chancellor of the university; and in 1502, became first Margaret professor of divinity. Two years later, he obtained the bishopric of Rochester. For many years after this appointment, he labored diligently for the welfare of the church and the universities. The reformation of Luther found in him-as might have been expected from his devout ecclesiasticism-a strenuous, if not an able opponent. In 1527, a rupture took place between him and Henry in regard to the divorce of queen Catharine. F. refused to declare the marriage unlawful. From this period, he figures in the politico-religious strifes of his time as a stanch adherent of the papacy. He opposed the suppression of the lesser monasteries in 1529, and the acknowledgment of Henry as head of the church in 1531, and thereby excited the dislike of the party of progress in the English nation. His credulity-many would apply a harsher term-in reference to Elizabeth Barton (q.v.), the "holy maid of Kent," involved him in a still more perilous antagonism to the king. He was imprisoned; and on refusing to take the oath affirming the legality of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was committed to the Tower, April 26, 1534, where he was treated with great barbarity. A kind but unfortunate act of pope Paul III. now hastened the destruction of the old man. His Holiness, as a reward of his faithful services, sent him a cardinal's hat in May, 1535. When Henry was informed of this, he exclaimed: "Mother of God! he shall wear it on his shoulders, then; for I will leave him never a head to set it on." His ruin was now certain. Но was accused of high treason, and after a brief trial was condemned and executed, 22d June, 1535.

FISHER, WILLIAM MARK, b. Boston, 1841; શ painter of genre pictures; studied with George Inness, and in Paris.

FISHER, Mustela Pennantii, a quadruped of the family mustelide, found in Canada and the United States. The fisher is not often trapped, being very skillful in escaping. It receives its name from its fondness for fish, which it steals cunningly from traps i which it is placed as bait for the pine-marten. It is the largest of martens, being 3 ft. long, inclusive of the tail. In color it is chiefly black, often with gray or brown tints towards the head. It is a fierce nocturnal animal, living chiefly on birds and small quadrupeds. Its fur in winter is good, and is much used in Europe. The black tail was once a favorite ornament to the caps of the Polish Jews.

FISHERIES. The capture of various kinds of fish for the purpose of trade has always been extensively carried on in maritime countries, and in those which are watered by large rivers; and has been the means in many instances of adding greatly to their prosperity. In Great Britain and Ireland, especially, this pursuit affords remunerative employment to a large proportion of the population, and forms an unequaled nursery for sailors to recruit the royal navy.

The art of capturing fish, like other arts, has been brought only by degrees to its present perfection. In remote ages, fish were caught in the rudest manner by men who lay on the rocks, ready to shoot them with arrows, or transfix them with spears. Even yet, in places which are only partly civilized, fish are taken with blankets or sheepskins; and a roughly made spear, known as a leister, is still used in the country districts of the United Kingdom in the illegal capture of salmon. Advancing intelligence, however, and the use of fish as an article of barter for other kinds of food, soon led to more effective modes of capture. Persons who dwelt on the sea-coast began to exchange fish for animal food killed by the inland hunters, and in this way initiated a commerce which is now represented by a vast amount of capital and enterprise.

The importance of F., as bearing on the food-supplies of nations, inland as well as maritime, and as forming a remunerative outlet for labor, can scarcely be overestimated, more especially as fish has ever been in the greatest demand by all classes of the people, and has been in use for human food from the most remote periods. Previous to the reformation, it was in universal demand in Britain, being the prescribed diet during the fasts appointed by the church.

One great peculiarity of this source of wealth is that, with slight exceptions, the seaharvest (if we may so call it) is ripened, without trouble or expense for the fisher, who only requires to provide the means of gathering it; and that, under certain regulations, it is free to all comers. River F., except for salmon, are unproductive in Great