Rinaldo Mantovano on the "Fall of the Giants," and Benedetto Pagni da Pescia on the story of Psyche and the horses and hounds in the Palace del Tè. The original works of Giulio display boldness of imagination, breadth and power of treatment, and a mastery of materials, and these distinctive qualities have won for him the name of "prince of decorators." Like his master, Raphael, he had great knowledge of the human figure, and represented it with force and truth, but his work rather lacks the ideal grace and poetic refinement of Raphael's. His oil paintings are not considered particularly fine. A good collection made by the dukes of Mantua was purchased by Charles I. of England in 1629, and several of them are now in the Hampton Court gallery. The best of this collection, a "Nativity," was sold to France, and is now in the Louvre, as is also his portrait painted by himself. The "Madonna della Gatta," considered the chief of all his paintings, is in Naples. GIUNTA PISANO, the earliest Italian painter whose name is found inscribed on an extant work, exercised his art from 1202 to 1236; he may perhaps have been born towards 1180, in Pisa, and died in, or soon after, 1236. There is some ground for thinking that this family name was Capiteno. In recent times some efforts have been made to uphold his deservings as an artist, thereby detracting so far from the credit due to the initiative of Cimabue; but it cannot be said that these efforts rest on a very solid basis. To most eyes the performances of Giunta merely represent a continuous stage of the long period of pictorial inaptitude. The inscribed work above referred to, one of his earliest, is a crucifix, now or lately in the kitchen of the convent of St. Anne, in Pisa. Other Pisan works of like date are very barbarous, and some of them may also be from the hand of Giunta. It is said that he painted in the upper church of Assisi,-in especial, a crucifixion dated 1236, with a figure of Father Elias, the general of the Franciscans, embracing the foot of the cross. In the sacristy is a portrait of St. Francis, also ascribed to Giunta; but it more probably belongs to the close of the 13th century. This artist was in the practice of painting on cloth stretched on wood, and prepared with plaster. GIURGE'VO, an important trading t. of Roumania, is situated on the left bank of the Danube, directly opposite Rustchuk, and 40 m. s.s. w. from Bucharest, of which town it is the port. It was originally the Genoese settlement of St. George. Its port, Smarda, about two miles distant, is the great landing-place for steamers in Wallachia. With Galatz and Ibraila it holds the first rank among the commercial cities of Roumania. It was an important strategic point in the wars between Russia and Turkey. Pop. '89, 12,559. GIUS'TI, GIUSEPPE, the most celebrated and popular of the modern poets and satirists of Italy, was b. in 1809, at Pescia, in the vicinity of Florence. Sprung from an influential Tuscan family, Giusti was early destined to the bar, and at Pistoja and Lucca commenced the preliminary studies, which were completed at the university of Pisa, where he obtained his degree of doctor of laws. Sustained earnestness of study seems to have formed no feature in Guisti's collegiate course, whose natural bent rather inclined him to a genial participation in the freaks and social pleasures of his companions than to the erudite investigation of the Pandects. On quitting Pisa, Giusti was domiciled at Florence with the eminent advocate Capoquadri, who subsequently became minister of justice, and here he first attempted poetry. Lyrical compositions of the romantic school, evincing both elevated and nervous thought, were his earliest efforts; but he speedily comprehended that satire, not idealism, was his true forte. In a preeminent degree, Giusti possesses the requirements of a great lyrical satirist-terse, clear, and brilliant, he depicts, alternately with the poignant regret of the humanitarian and the mocking laugh of the ironist, the decorous shams and conventional vices of his age. His impartiality only lends a keener sting to his denunciation. The stern flagellator of tyrants, he is no less merciless in stigmatizing those whose pliant servility helps to perpetuate the abasement of their country. Nor does he adulate the people, whose cham pion he avowedly is, and whose follies and inconsistencies he indicates with the faithfulness of a watchful friend. The writings of Giusti exercised a positive political influence. When the functions of the press were ignored, and freedom of thought was treason, his flaming verses in manuscript were throughout all Italy in general circulation, fanning the hatred of foreign despots, and powerfully assisted in preparing the revolutionary insurrection of 1848. Then for the first time, did Giusti discard the pseudonym of "The Anonymous Tuscan," and append his name to a volume of verses bearing on the events and aims of the times. All his compositions are short pieces, rarely blemished with personalities, and written in the purest form of the popular Tuscan dialect. The elegant familiarity of idiom which constitutes one of their chief and original beauties in the eyes of their native readers, presents great difficulties to foreigners, and still greater to the translator. Giusti's writings are not only Italian in spirit and wit, but essentially Tuscan. A reverent student of Dante, Giusti himself often reaches an almost Dantesque sublimity in the higher outbursts of his scornful wrath, while he stands alone in the lighter play of ironical wit. In politics, an enlightened and moderate liberal, averse alike to bureaucracy and mobocracy, Giusti was also beloved in private life for his social qualities, and his loving and gentle spirit. He died in 1850, aged 41, in the dwelling of his attached friend, the marquis Gino Capponi, at Florence; and the throng of citizens who followed him to the grave, in the teeth of Austrian prohibition, attested eloquently the repute he enjoyed in life. His most celebrated pieces are entitled Stivale, or the History of a boot (Italy), a humorous narration of all the misfits, ill-usage, and patching allotted to this unfortunate down-trodden symbol of his country; Gingillino, a master-piece of sarcasm, portraying the ignoble career of the sycophant, whose supple back and petty diplomacy finally secure for him the highest distinctions; Il Re Travicello, or King Log, the subject of which is indicated by the title; Il Brindisi di Girella, or the Weathercock's Toast, one of his best pieces, dedicated to the suggestive name of Talleyrand: and the Dies Ira, or funeral oration of the emperor Francis I. The only authorized and correct edition of his works is that published at Florence in 1852 by Le Monnier. GIUSTINIA'NI, an illustrious Italian race, to which the republics of Venice and Cenoa owed more than one doge. One of the palatial residences of Rome was erected towards the end of the 16th c. by a descendant of the family, the marquis Giustiniani. The site he selected for the palace was a portion of the ruins of Nero's baths, and on its completion he enriched it with a magnificent private gallery of paintings, and a fine collection of sculptures. He also formed a museum of antiquities, the treasures of which were discovered on the spot. In 1807, the Giustiniani family conveyed the collection of paintings to Paris, where they disposed of the greater part by auction, and privately sold the remainder, consisting of 170 fine paintings, to the artist Bonnechose, who, in his turn, resold them to the king of Prussia. This fragment of the famous Giustiniani gallery now enriches the Berlin museum, and a very few of its former treasures are still to be found in the Giustiniani palace at Rome. GIVET, a t. of France, and a fortress of the first rank, is situated in the department of Ardennes, on both banks of the Meuse, close to the border of Belgium, and 145 m. n.e. of Paris. The town consists of three districts-Charlemont, Givet St. Hilaire, and and Givet Notre Dame, all lying within the line of the fortifications. It is well situated in a commercial point of view, is regularly built, has handsome squares, a good port, barracks, a military hospital, and manufactures of crayons, for which Givet is famous, of sealing-wax, iron and copper wares, soap, etc. Pop. '91, 6818. GIVORS, a t. of France, in the department of Rhone, is situated on the right bank of the river of that name, 14 m. s. of Lyons. Bottles and window glass are here extensively manufactured, and there are coal mines near by. Pop. '91, 10,098. GIZZARD, a strong and muscular portion of the alimentary canal, in birds especially, for grinding the coarse food upon which they subsist. Some of the Bryozoa have such a gizzard between the oesophagus and true stomach. Many gasteropods have gizzards armed with teeth or calcareous plates, and some cephalopods have both powerful jaws and strong gizzards between the crop and the first stomach. Many insects and crustaceans have gizzards, in some cases armed with strong teeth. Most birds have a true gizzard, excepting only those whose food is soft and succulent. The food is acted upon by gastric juice before it is ground up in the gizzard. This organ is the homologue of the pyloric portion of the stomach of most of the vertebrates. It is lined by a horny epithelium, the "gizzard skin," and most birds swallow pieces of gravel to assist the gizzard in grinding the food. GLACIAL PERIOD, a supposed interval of time during the later tertiary period, in which large portions of the temperate zone were covered with ice. That extreme cold once prevailed in latitudes of the northern hemisphere now embraced in the temperate zone is shown by marks of glaciers and the fossils of arctic animals found in these regions. A great part of Europe and America was covered with a sheet of ice. The epoch comprehended alternations of warmth and cold, during which the ice sheet shrank and expanded. Variation in the obliquity of the ecliptic and in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit are given as reasons for the glaciation of temperate regions. The deposits of the glacial period are boulder clays of different kinds, separated by sands and clays; sands, gravel, and clays, the last holding the remains of animals, erratic rocks, masses transported great distances and evincing by their size that only floating ice could have carried them; moraines, or the débris gathered in valleys by local glaciers. The basins of many lakes were excavated, it is asserted, during this period of glacial action. GLA'CIER is a name given to immense masses of ice, which are formed above the snow-line, on lofty mountains, and descend into the valleys to a greater or less distance, often encroaching on the cultivated regions. The materials of the glaciers are derived from the snow which falls during summer as well as winter on the summits of high mountains. Every fresh fall of snow adds a little to the height of the mountain, and, were there no agents at work to get rid of it, the mountains would be gradually rising to an indefinite elevation. Avalanches and glaciers, however, carry the snow into warmer regions, where it is reduced to water; in the one, the snow slips from the steep mountain slopes, and rushes rapidly down; in the other, it gradually descends, and is converted into ice in its progress. The snow which forms the glacier at its origin has a very different appearance and consistence from the ice of which it consists at its lower termination. The minute state of division of the ice, in its snow condition, and the quantity of air interspersed through it, gives it its characteristic white color. Two causes operate in causing this change into ice; first, pressure expels the air, by bringing the particles of the lower layers of snow more closely together; and second, the sum mer's heat, melting the surface, the water thus obtained percolates through the mass beneath, and as it passes amongst the particles whose temperature is below 32° F., it increases their size by external additions till the particles meet, and the whole becomes a solid mass. The snowy region of the glacier is called by the French name néré. In large glaciers, the névé is of great extent, a large quantity of material being required to make up the waste. The névé is, however, often confined to narrow valleys, and, as a consequence, produces glaciers which soon perish. The increase of a glacier by snow falling on its surface takes place only above the snow-line-below that line, all the accumulated winter's snows are speedily melted by the summer heat. The ice of the glacier seldom exhibits any traces of the horizontal stratification which is found in the névé, but is generally intersected with vertical veins of clear blue ice. The most remarkable feature of glaciers is their motion. It has been long known to the natives of the Alps that they move, but it is only within the last few years that it has received due attention from scientific men; the account of their observations, and the theories based upon them, form one of the most interesting chapters in the history of glaciers. See the writings of Agassiz, Forbes, and Tyndall. The continual waste of glaciers below the snow-line, both along its surface and at its extremity, is ever being repaired, so that the glacier does not recede from the valley, nor decrease in depth. That the materials of the reparation are not derived from the fall of the winter's snow and the influence of the winter's frost, is evident, inasmuch as these additions speedily disappear with the return of the summer's heat, and in the end form but a small proportion of the year's total loss. The true repairing agent is the motion of the glacier, which brings down the glacified snow from the upper regions to be melted below. To account for this motion, Charpantier supposed the water which saturated the glacier in all its parts, and filled the innumerable capillary fissures, was, during night and during the winter, frozen, and that the well known and almost irresistible expansion which would take place in the conversion of the water into ice, furnished the force necessary to move the glacier forwards. This theory, known as the dilatation theory, was for some time adopted by Agassiz, but ultimately abandoned. Agassiz showed that the interior of the glacier had a temperature of 32° F., and subsequent observations have shown that the glacier moves more rapidly in summer than in winter. In 1799, Do Saussure published a second theory, known as the gravitation or sliding theory, in which he supposed that the glacier moved by sliding down the inclined plane on which it rested, and that it was kept from adhering to its bed, and sometimes even elevated by the water melted in the contact of the glacier with the naturally warmer earth. While correctly attributing the motion to gravity, De Saussure erred in considering glaciers as continuous and more or less rigid solids—indeed, the motion he attributes to them would, if commenced, be accelerated by gravity, and dash the glacier from its bed as an avalanche. Principal Forbes was the author of the next important theory. Considerable attention had in the meantime been paid to the subject by Rendu, Agassiz, and others. Rendu had shown that the glacier possessed a semi-fluid or river-like motion, in explaining the difference between observations made by him at the center, which "moves more rapidly," and others made at the sides, "where the ice is retained by the friction against its rocky walls." The results based on Rendu's observations were established by the repeated and exact measurements of Forbes, who, in the progress of his examinations, made the further discoveries, that the surface moves more rapidly than the ice near the bottom, and the middle than the sides; that the rate of motion is greater where the glacier-bed has the greatest inclination; and that the motion is continued in winter, while it is accelerated in summer by the increase of the temperature of the air. The only theory which, as it appeared to Forbes, could account for these phenomena is thus expressed by him: A glacier is an imperfect fluid or a viscous body, which is urged down slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts." This is known as the viscous theory. He considered a glacier as not a crystalline solid, like ice tranquilly frozen in a mold, but that it possessed a peculiar fissured and laminated structure, through which water entered into its intrinsic composition, giving it a viscid consistence, similar to that possessed by treacle, honey, or tar, but differing in degree. Prof. Tyndall has published another theory, which he designates the pressure theory. This differs little from that of Forbes, except that it denies that glacier ice is in the least viscid. By a number of independent observations, he established the facts first noticed by Rendu and Forbes, and added the important one, that the place of greatest motion is not in the center of the glacier, but in a curve more deeply sinuous than the valley itself, crossing the axis of the glacier at each point of contrary flexure-in fact that its motion is similar to that of a river whose point of maximum motion is not central, but deviates towards that side of the valley towards which the river turns its convex boundary. This seems a further corrobora tion of the viscous theory, but Tyndall explained it and the other facts by a theory which, while maintaining the quasi-fluid motion of the glacier, denied that this motion was owing to its being in a viscous condition. The germ of his theory, as he tells us, was derived from some observations and experiments of Faraday's in 1850, who showed "that when two pieces of ice, with moistened surfaces, were placed in contact, they |