which being constructed in successive stages was occasionally used as a ladder, the chief difficulty being found in keeping the workings free from water, which in wet seasons not unfrequently gained the mastery and drowned the men out. The skips appear to have been always rectangular in shape, similar to the shafts.

Intermediately between the date of the above coalworks and the present most approved collieries, Mr. Protheroe, in his evidence before the Dean Forest Commissioners, in 1832, relative to his thirty-two coal-pits, stated that "the depth of my principal pits at Park End and "Bilson varies from about 150 to 200 yards; that of my "new gales, for which I have engine licences, is estimated "at from 250 to 300 yards. I have 12 steam engines varying from 12 to 140 horse power, 9 or 10 of which "are at work, the whole amounting to 500 horse power; " and I have licences for four more engines, two of "which must be of very great power. The amount of "wages paid by me, in the last twelve years, to colliers, hauliers, and labourers, is upwards of 150,000l., giving "constant employment on the average to from 400 to "500 individuals.'

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The coal-pits were now lined throughout with stone walling, leaving a clear diameter of from 7 to 9 feet; greater regard was paid to their drainage and ventilation, both of which required particular attention, owing to the watery nature of the coal measures, and the abundance of "choke-damp," although happily "firedamp" never appears. Horses were now used underground for bringing the coal-trams to the foot of the pit, and all the workings were accurately surveyed and recorded, agreeably to the regulations instituted by the Dean Forest Mining Commissioners, under the judicious Act of 27th July, 1838, to the effect that "the quantity of coals sent daily from each colliery "should be duly entered, and plans made of the workings, for the information of the Gaveller, who "might also inspect any underground operations at all "reasonable times," the whole undertaking being required to be carried on according to the best and most

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improved system. In accordance with which excellent rules, each of the 105 re-awards of coal seams applied for during the years 1838-41 were so ably set out by

Messrs. Sopwith, Buddle, and Probyn, as effectually to check the numerous disputes which formerly arose, and ere long so to develop the coal-works of the Forest

R

Light Moor Colliery.

of Dean as to render them worthy to be compared wit some of the finest collieries in the kingdom. As & instance of their present excellence, Messrs. Crawshay'. colliery at Light Moor may be mentioned, for its great extent, completeness, powerful machinery, and size of its pits. These last, four in number, are 291 feet deep, one of which, measuring 9 feet 6 inches by 14 feet, contains pumps raising 88 gallons of water per minute.

The number of coal-works in the Forest at the close of 1856 was 221, yielding in that year to the public use upwards of 460,432 tons; the ten largest collieries each producing as follows:

Probably a twentieth part of the above total should be added to the amount charged, in consideration of the quantity consumed by the colliery engines, thus making the gross annual produce a third of a million of

tons.

CHAPTER XVI.

The Geology of the Forest, and its Minerals — Their character in general - Description of the beds of conglomerate, mountain limestone, iron veins, millstone grit, and lower coal measures "The Coleford High Delf". - Elevation of the Forest range of hills - The middle coal veins The upper veins Mr. Mushet's analysis of the Forest coal Their fossils The stone-quarries of the district.

THE geological conditions of the Forest of Dean merit careful observation, not only as regards the mineral wealth comprised within its limits, but as explanatory of its undulations, and the means of maintenance for its nhabitants.

The strata of the Forest repose in a basin-like form, the greatest depression being near the centre; the longer axis extending from N. to S. about eleven miles, and the transverse axis, in the widest part, ranging from E. to W. about seven miles. The general observer, if he takes his stand on the edge of hills by which this basin is bounded, will see the enclosing character of the ridge, as well as the less conspicuous circle of somewhat elevated land occupying the central portion of the field, and which is separated by a valley or plain from the surrounding ridge.

This outlying ridge marks in most places the outcrop of the Conglomerate, Mountain Limestone, Iron Veins, Millstone Grit, and Lower Coal-measures.

Mr. Maclauchlan's geological map of the district exhibits the course of the conglomerate bed, and the consequent disappearance of the old red sandstone formation under the Dean Forest basin. Occasionally this conglomerate, or hard grit, forms two distinct beds, very distant from one another, near Lydney for instance, and on the Kimin Hill and Buckstone, although it is sometimes cut

off altogether by a "fault," as opposite Blackney. It varies in hardness as well as in the number of the pebbles, and not unfrequently presents an abrupt fall at its termination, as at "the Harkening Rock" in the High

General view of the Centre of the Forest from the top of Ruerdean Hill.

meadow Woods. The upper portion of the bed is soft, and acquires the character of limestone clay, often throwing out springs, such as St. Anthony's Well, which have accumulated in the limestone rocks above. A very

micaceous