patriarchal part of sacred history; for there is no country in which these erections of unhewn stone can be rationally accounted for except in Palestine, and that through the medium of sacred history. In Hindostan these structures are called Pandoo Koolies, and are attributed to a fabulous being, called Pandoo, and his sons. We find them distributed over various parts of the earth, bearing such similarity of character as attests them to have had one and the same origin. In India, on the shores of the Levant and the Mediterranean, in France, in Belgium, in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, on the shores of Britain, from the Land's End, in Cornwall, to the Straits of Dover; and also in many parts of the interior of our country, these remains exist, and they are frequently accompanied by sepulchral mounds and other earth works. The various remains of these erections of unhewn stone present themselves to our view under the following varieties: 1. The single stone, called a pillar, or obelisk. 2. Circles of these stones, varying in number and arrangement. 3. Sacrificial stones. 4. Cromlechs and cairns. 5. Logan stones. 6. Colossal stones, called Tolmens. The pillar, or single stone, is of patriarchal origin, so also is the circle of single stones; those erected by the Israelites consisted of twelve stones, answering to the number of their tribes. ON ARCHITECTURAL ARCHEOLOGY. ALTHOUGH one general style of architecture prevailed throughout the whole of Western Europe for several centuries succeeding the period of the Crusades, each country exhibits peculiar modifications of that style, analogous to the different dialects of one common tongue. Hence the Spanish Peninsula, Lombardy, and the rest of Italy, France, England, the Netherlands, and Germany, furnish very striking differences of character in buildings classed together under the comprehensive generic term Gothic, varying more or less from each other, yet all having, as it were, one However incorrect the term "Gothic" may be historically, and it is after all, perhaps, not a whit more so than the term "Corinthian," applied to the foliage-capitalled (if the phrase be allowable) order of the ancients, it is now too firmly rooted in the language of art in all European dialects to be got rid of, leading idea, the substratum of the whole. We shall yet, it is hoped, be put into possession of a more complete course of comparative architecture, as regards this style, than we have hitherto been furnished with; since very much indeed remains to be accomplished for that purpose, although the scattered materials are sufficiently numerous. By confronting with each. other various particulars selected from English and foreign structures of this class, a more complete insight would be obtained of the style itself, and much might be collected that would prove of considerable practical use in the application of Gothic architecture to modern purposes. Such a course of study may, undoubtedly, be pursued by an individual, yet very few can afford such a collection of expensive works as it would require,-to say nothing of the inconvenience of consulting, at the same time, a multiplicity of publications, where similar subjects might be very differently treated; and from which it would be a task of no small labour to deduce any clear and general synopsis. A Parallel of Gothic Architecture would be an undertaking of some magnitude; still, by a judicious economy both of selection and arrangement, a few hundred plates might be made to contain a great number of highly valuable and curious studies, many of them comparatively little known in this country, and, certainly, not to be met with in any preceding English work. We should hardly recommend Durand's "Parallèle" as a model, since that exhibits, for the most part, merely a series of small and almost minute elevations, in an inconveniently large volume, while the advantage of all the subjects being drawn upon the same scale is greatly counterbalanced by the scale itself being necessarily adapted to the larger edifices, and consequently too diminutive to display more than the general features of the smaller ones. This inconvenience would be still more sensibly felt in a work on Gothic architecture, because we cannot, as in the "regular" Italian or Italianized style, take any of the detail for granted, and from the leading indications of the parts guess, with tolerable accuracy, of their subordinate members and finishings. Besides which, (although it happens rather unfortunately for the doctrine of those who maintain that in order to produce effect, Gothic buildings require to be upon a large scale,) many of the most impressive specimens of even could another be substituted for it equally intelligible and expressive. And if to object to it as erroneous be hypercritical, to object to it as opprobrious, when its history and principles have been so assiduously inquired into as of late, is absolutely ridiculous. that style will be found in structures of very moderate dimensions. This will hardly be disputed by those who have at all studied what it is capable of accomplishing in such productions as porches, chapels, chantries, oratories, cloisters, &c.; and if it be urged that these are rather to be considered componant parts of larger edifices, than independent structures, we may vindicate our opinion, by referring to many strikingly beautiful examples of ancient market crosses. In selecting the materials for a work of this description, which after all would be exceedingly limited, in comparison with the extent and copiousness of the subject, it would be advisable to make choice of such examples as should illustrate this style of architecture generally, rather than those which are peculiar to this kingdom. While we admit the surpassing beauties of many of our own Gothic structures, we cannot help thinking that their merit has rendered us somewhat too inattentive to those of other countries,-incurious as to their peculiarities, and cold as to their merits. With the exception of what has been done for Normandy, and some other parts of France, by English artists or antiquaries, hardly any attempt has been made to familiarize us with the "Gothic examples" of the Continent. In saying this, we mean not to disparage the spirited productions of Mr. Coney's pencil, yet, although they are exceedingly picturesque delineations, and convey a satisfactory idea of the character of the buildings represented; they certainly do not supersede the necessity for more strictly architectural representations, on the contrary, an inspection of them serves to convince us what rich stores, both of ecclesiastical and domestic architecture, are to be met with upon the Continent, and which are hardly known here, except by vague report and a certain prescriptive reputation. maps very obscure places, nor could they even guess NOTICES OF LEGAL USAGE AMONGST THE ANCIENT NORTHMEN. THE manners, customs, and superstitions of the Eng- The penal laws of the Teutones were sanguinary and barbarous in the extreme :—yet, what is at once a mark of our kindred character, and of the inefficacy of inordinate punishments, they were even anxious to With regard to our travelled architects, their re-afford some loop-hole for the criminal's escape; either searches are almost exclusively confined to "classic" land; besides Italy and Greece, rarely do they visit any parts of the Continent, except indeed such as lie in the direct route thither. Thus, while we meet again and again with observations on buildings, whose merits had been sufficiently discussed before, we are still as far as ever from obtaining any information of a thousand others, many of which possess equal, and some superior claims to notice. Those who place the Bourse at Paris among the finest architectural works of the present century, can hardly by any chance have heard of the magnificent works at Gran, in Hungary, of the restorations at Marienburg, Berlin, and Munich. Krescowicz and Rosenstein are in their in the shape of quibble, or by an ordeal of chance. How far such humane facilities were necessary will appear after a sample of the revolting inflictions adjudged. Removers of boundary stones were buried up to the neck in the earth, and ploughed to death! With that frequent taste for spell-like formalities we find amongst rude people, it was further directed, that a new plough, four unbroken horses, and a ploughman who had never turned a furrow, should be brought to the act. Forest burners were placed with their naked feet exposed to a slow fire, and kept there until these dropped off. But the most horrid fate befell him who destroyed the bark of trees,—a fate we almost shrink from describing. His navel was dug out, nailed to the barked tree, and the unhappy wretch driven round, until he had belted the denuded trunk with his own bowels! All this too at a time when every man's life had its evergelt, or price. A race, born and bred warriors, deemed the spilling of blood but an offence of circumstances. Indeed, a reluctance to shed it seems to have been a crime, for we find cowards condemned to be" smothered in mud." At the same moment, the manly and chivalrous, though mistaken and unchristian feeling which governed, peeps out in the fact that a woman's evergelt was treble a man's, because she could not defend herself. The Northmen have always been remarkable for a more respectful and affectionate treatment of the fair, than has prevailed in Southern and Oriental regions. They surpassed the polished Greeks and Romans in this respect. Amongst the Teutones, it was lawful for a host to beat soundly a guest who spoke immodestly before the ladies, and the privilege was a rare one. The lords of the soil were of old, as at present, inexorable in the enforcement of "game laws." Of their strictness in the land whereof we speak, some idea may be formed from what appears meant as a good-natured fishing indulgence. To us it savours marvellously like the liberty to catch larks when the sky falls. The grace runs thus :---" If a good fellow of the country enter the water, with his hose and shoes on, and catch hold of a fish, and eat it with good friends, he has done no wrong." What with first and second proviso, it is to be feared the old German boors took little by the license. posure, not the destruction of children; nor was it capriciously acted on. The tenures whereby the ancient vassals held their lands were often exceedingly whimsical. Grimm cites an example amusingly characteristic. Certain monastic tenants, whenever they indulged in the luxury of a roasted capon were bound to expose it, cooked, for a brief while in the hall of the convent; in order that the brethren might enjoy the gustatory savour. Whether there existed a further understanding that one or other of these should be invited home to partake more earnestly, he does not add. We should suspect there did; and thence the exaction, unless indeed we can believe the self-denying friars meant the tantalizing service as a penance to themselves. The old Germans exhibit a sense of bonhommie amidst their feudal barbarities; as for instance, though it was allowable to wring the neck of a hen that strayed beyond prescribed limits, yet was it required to be thrown back into the owner's premises, together with such a supply of herbs as would suffice to garnish it handsomely for table. It There does, or did flicker amongst the vulgar in England a conceit that children born before marriage might be legitimated by being placed under their mothers' garments during the ceremony. With the Teutonic people it was law. Perhaps it may likewise have been so with our Saxon and Danish ancestors. The same people appear to have exactly defined the age at which a man might be called an old bachelor. was when he had seen fifty years three months and three days. Like ourselves, they seem never to have dared an attempt at similar precision with regard to ancient maidenhood. The right of adoption obtained: one form of it consisted in making the adopted put on the shoes of the adopter. It has been asked whether our phrase of "standing in his shoes" may not owe its origin to this custom. The wild poetry infused throughout the forms and usages of the Northmen is often imposing. The language of their feudal courts partook of it, and we The savage custom of exposing new-born infants prevailed in ancient Germany. The learned are aware it was by no means confined thereto. Amongst the Teutones, it was usual to leave the child on the floor of the chamber, whereon the mother herself lay, until the father, being called, acknowledged his offspring, either by taking it in his arms, or by directing it to be cast forth. Then comes in another of those superstitious observances, so often made part and parcel of eldern codes. The infant might not be legally aban-are tempted to conclude these mixed notices by a spedoned, if it had acquired a right to live by tasting food. A story is told, that Liafburga, mother of St. Ludiger, was preserved to the world through such an incident. The babe had been carried away by a servant, with orders to immerse it in a pail of water; he did so, but the destined mother of the saint cling ing to the sides of the vessel instinctively, was pitied and snatched away by a matron passing, who applied some honey to her lips ere the emissary could prevent. Strictly, however, the law only permitted the ex cimen. It presents a condemnation to a dreadful sort of outlawry :-" For this we judge thee and doom thee; and take thee out of all rights and place thee in all wrongs; and we award thy feifs to the lord from whom they came, thy patrimony and acquired property to thy children, and thy body and flesh to the fowls of the air, the beasts of the forest, and the fish of the water. We give thee over to all men and all ways; and wherever man has peace and safe conduct thou shalt have none; and we turn thee forth upon the four ways of the world; and no man can sin against thee." | over all reprises to have to theim and to theire heires Another, reciting the penalty on a breach of solemn compact, may be tolerated:— "He who breaks this compact shall be banished, and driven as far as man can be driven: wherever Christian men go to church and heathen men sacrifice in temples-wherever fire burns and earth greens; child cries for its mother, and mother bears child-wherever ship floats, shield glitters, sun melts snow, fir grows, hawk flies the long spring day and the wind stands under his wings-wherever the heavens vault themselves and earth is cultivated, water runs, and man sows corn, shall HE be refused the church and the Lord's house, and good men deny him any home but males of their two bodyes, lawfully begotten, in maner fourme folowinge, that is to witt Lordships, manoirs, lands and tenements in possession at that day to the yerely value of vje mare and Manoirs, Lordships lands and tenements in revercion after the decesse of Thomas Stanley, Knight, Lord Stanley, to the yerely value of iiije mare, and in the meane season oure said souvrain Lord graunteth to the said Erle and Dame Katerine an annuite of iiije marc yerely to be had and pceyved to theim from Michelmasse last past during the lif of the said Lord Stanley, of the revenues of the Lordships of Newport, Brekenok, and Hay in Wales by the hands of the receyvours of theim for the tyme being, and over this oure said souvrain Lord granteth to make and bere the cost and charge of the said mariage at the day of the solempnizing thereof In witnesse wherof oure said souvrain Lord to the oon partie of these endentures remayngng with the said Erle, hath set his Signet, and to the other partie remaynyng with oure said souvrain Lord, the said Erle hath set his seal the day and yeare abovesaid." THOUGHTS ON THE INFLUENCE OF CONTINGENCY IN FORMING THE SCIENCE OF ARCHITECTURE. "This endentur made at London the last day of Februar', the first yere of the reigne of oure souvrain, We might indeed say "the Influence of Contingency" Lord King Richard third, betwene oure said souvrain in forming the fine arts in general; for in a certain Lord on the oon partie and the right noble Lord Wil-sense man himself is the creature of circumstances, liam Erle of Huntingdon on the other, ptie witnesseth that the said Erle promiseth and graunteth to oure said souvrain Lord, that before the fest of Saint Michel next comỹng, by god's grace, he shall take to wiff Dame Katerine Plantagenet, dought, to oure saide souvrain Lord, & before the day of their mariage, to make or cause to be made to hir behouff, a sure, sufficient and lawfull estate of certain his manoirs, Lordships lands and tenements in England, to the yerely valewe of CCli over all charge, to have, and hold to him and the said Dame Katerine, and to their heires of their two bodies lawfully begotten, remayndre to the right heires of the said Erle, for the whiche oure saide souvrain Lord graunteth to the said Erle, and to the same Dame Katerine, to make or cause to be made to theim before the said day of mariege, a sure, suffisaunt and lawfull estate of manoirs, Lordships lands and tenements of the yerely value of a M. marč and his most finished works shew the marks of the same hand which has done so much in modelling his own character. But, of these three principal branches of study usually designated by the appellation "fine arts," two, namely, Painting and Sculpture, may be said to be purely and primarily imitative, and therefore to a great degree must be evidently under the control of contingency. For what is the province of these arts but to represent man under the influence of all the accidental relations in which he acts or by which he is acted upon; or at other times to bring before the eye all the casual varieties of natural scenery or of animal life? The influence then of contingency over these subjects, and therefore over the works that represent them, will be admitted; but it is not so readily apprehended by many how the same influence extends to a science which they are accustomed to consider so essentially a matter of rule as that of architecture. That however it has such an extent is unquestionable; the great influence of contingent circumstances in and, while we fully recognize the authoritative character of the usually admitted principles of architectural composition,-principles whose object it is to support the distinctiveness of any approved style by a strict attention to its characteristics in detail, -we shall not find it uninteresting or useless to consider for a few moments how far those principles are the effect of any immutable laws of beauty on the one hand, or of the accidental circumstances of life on the other. To form any judgment upon a subject of this kind, we must take into consideration the particulars of time, of situation, and of event which have attended the appearance and developement of any given style of the art; and these indeed constitute contingencies of unlimited operation. Thus, if we direct our attention to the venerable remains of Egyptian grandeur, we find them, as standing earliest in time, characterized by the greatest degree of simplicity and by the least of what may be called experiment in art. What is the huge pyramidal mountain of stone but the astonishing ideal of simplicity? What is the tall obelisk, or the rude compound of the human and bestial forms in the giant Sphinx, but a monument of the same quality? The like may be observed of the Egyptian temple, imposing as it was for massive dignity. Again the situation in which as well as the time when, this style of architecture happened to arise will be found to have imparted to it many of its principles and decorations. Exposed to the beams of a hot sun, the apertures of structures in that country were small compared with the masses placed in a region seldom visited by rain, the temples had no pediments or inclined roofs. The palm-tree and the lotus, rising on all sides, furnished the builders of the day with elegant foliage for the capitals of their columns The reed from the banks of the Nile, single or grouped, afforded them bands for their entablatures and large hollow cornices-whence, in all probability, the Greeks of after times derived their triglyphs. The bright sun, ever riding over their wide plains, was portrayed above their temple-doors as symbolical of the presiding genius of the land, and not unfrequently associated with other celestial devices. The serpent, the crocodile, and numerous animals, the objects of their veneration, provided them with additional forms of architectural embellishment. If we further take into consideration the varied observances of sacerdotal mystery by which the disposition of the sacred edifices was regulated, and the different contemporaneous events which frequently conferred a character on the collateral decorations of those edifices, we shall be prepared to allow constituting the Egyptian style what it was. And has Grecian art been less exposed to the operation of the same influence? Jealous as the ancient Greeks were of their claims to originality in every respect, they would not for the most part allow that their sciences any more than their national ancestry were of foreign derivation. To such a story, however, we may award what degree of credit we please when we remember that Athens, afterwards the fountain of all refinement, owed its foundation, and of course its earliest arts, to the Egyptian Cecrops. The principles of analogy, indeed, as well as the facts of history, lead to the conclusion that the bold Doric order of the Greeks was but an improvement on the massive form of the Egyptians. Having thus however gained some fundamental ideas to proceed upon, the former did not, like those from whom they borrowed their elements of art, feel an inducement, from the charms of old association, or the requirements of national customs, to perpetuate the detailed forms of their prototypes to any greater extent than might be agreeable to their own independent ideas of fitness. And here then also we find a number of accidental circumstances combining with the suggestions of taste to produce novelty of style. The sun's rays fell with mildness on Greece compared with their fervour in Egypt; and the prospect on all sides was that of beautiful variety, and not of sandy plains dotted with palm-trees. Hence, instead of a few columns occupying as it were a mere opening in a wall, the common Egyptian distribution, the Greeks found the advantage of a continued colonnade, in which they might walk, to enjoy the benign influences of the atmosphere, and the charms of luxuriant scenery. In Greece, however, while the air was more temperate, rain was frequent and copious; in consequence of which the sloping roof was resorted to, whose ends, by being finished with the same cornices as the horizontal fronts had been, produced the dignified pediment. From these two features, of the peristyle or colonnade, and the pediment at each extreme, the otherwise plain oblong cell derives its distinctive character of the Grecian temple. And passing from the mass to the detail, we recognize with satisfaction the happy contingency which scattered on all sides round the Greek artificers the acanthus, the rose, the honeysuckle, and other vegetable productions with modifications of which they have so beautifully decorated their works as to have constituted them examples of taste to all future times. From the graceful convolutions and foliage of some of those vegetable subjects the Ionic order probably, and |
