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Chemical Essays.

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matter, apparently a mixture of com- | observed that there is a remarkable

mon air and carbonic acid, takes place; from that to a strong red heat there is a loss of weight amounting to about two parts in the 100. But past this there is no further loss. It is supposed that there may be interstices in the clay, and that the caloric favours the aggregation of the particles, by which means a condensation takes place. With the exceptions now stated, it may be laid down as a general law, that caloric expands all bodies.

difference between expansion and fluidity. The former is produced gradually, there being as many degrees of it as there are degrees of temperature; whereas the latter is suddenly produced. It is said, that if the body be within one degree even of its melting point, it still preserves its solid form; and when a sufficient degree of caloric is communicated to it, it immediately becomes fluid. Some substances become soft before they pass into a state of fluidity, as, for instance, resin, wax, and animal fats. Mr. Nicholson has remarked, that the same thing is observable in some of the metals. In solder of the pewterers, for example, the interval between the commencement of congelation and the solidification of the whole mass, is not less than 40 degrees.

Some suppose that solidity is the

FLUIDITY. The second effect of caloric is, fluidity. Water remains in a state of fluidity, owing to the influence of caloric; for when this is abstracted to a certain extent, it assumes a solid form. Many bodies, which in their natural state are solid, become fluid by the application of heat; thus, for example, lead and iron, and most of the other metals, are melted by exposure to caloric. Some of these, how-natural state of every body, and that ever, require a much greater degree all bodies may be rendered solid by of heat to produce this effect than the abstraction of caloric. Indeed, others. Lead and tin are the most every known liquid has been reduced fusible; platina is the most infusible, to a solid state, with the exception of and requires an intense degree of heat alcohol; so that this conclusion may to produce liquefaction. Mercury is be adopted. We may conclude, therethe only metal which is in a fluid state fore, that caloric produces fluidity by at the temperature of our atmosphere; separating the particles of bodies, and as, however, we have before observed, it by producing new arrangements into can be made solid by the abstraction of which the particles enter. Indepencaloric. The substances most difficult dent, however, of a reduction of temof fusion are, the earths; these, how-perature, when liquids are reduced to ever, can be melted when mixed toge- a solid form, there are other circumther; and even separately, most of stances which have an influence in these have been fused by intense heat. producing this change; for example, Those bodies, therefore, which are li- water may be cooled below 32 degrees quid at the common temperature of our without becoming solid; it may without atmosphere, are said to be frozen difficulty be brought to 27 degrees, or when they assume a solid state; whilst 25 degrees, and with ease even to 23 those which are naturally solid, when degrees. Blagden succeeded in redubrought to a state of fluidity are said cing it to 21 degrees, De Luc cooled it to to be melted or fused. It must be ob- 6 or 7 degrees lower, and Dalton brought served, however, that some bodies it to 5 degrees of Fahrenheit without cannot be fused, as, for instance, wood freezing. These facts shew, that someand pure lime; the fact is, that some thing more is necessary than merely of these substances suffer a chemical a reduction of temperature, when wadecomposition at a temperature lower ter assumes a solid form. Accordthan that which would be necessary to ingly, it has been found, that agitation, fuse them; they are compound bodies, and the introduction of any particle of and by the agency of caloric their con- ice or snow, contributes to the producstituent principles pass into new forms tion of ice. It is said, that on the introand combinations. duction of the smallest particle of ice or snow, crystals instantly shoot from the spot which is touched, and the whole surface in a short time becomes congealed. Sir Charles Blagden ascribes the freezing of water to frozen particles which float in the atmo

Sir James Hall succeeded in fusing marble, chalk, and likewise coal, by the application of strong pressure, so as to prevent the decomposition arising from the separation, by heat, of aerial or volatile ingredients. It is

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On the Substratum of Matter.

sphere, which, when they touch the cooled surface, cause it to freeze. These phenomena, have been explained on the principle, that the congelation of a fluid such as water, is a species of crystallization, in which the particles, by agitation, and the introduction of an extraneous substance, at a certain temperature assume different forms, and become differently arranged.

(To be continued.)

ON THE SUBSTRATUM OF MATTER.

(Continued from col. 362.)

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its identity." As I never “presumed on the existence of no permanent principle," however similar the plight may have been in which we have both been placed, there must have been something of difference in it. Your correspondent's "permanent principle,” is the substratum of matter; mine is matter itself. I deny a substratum, but do not deny a permanent principle. His principle is something distinct from its attributes; mine is not, except it be in name and in imagination. The denial of an ulterior substratum, therefore, does not involve the startling consequences which M. S. has deduced from it.

IN the article that gave birth to Constant Reader's" remarks, some However absurd my notion of the doubts were expressed on the exist- identity of subject and attributes may ence of an unknown substratum of appear to M. S. it cannot appear more matter; and the reasons urged against so to him than does his incongruous it were as follow.*-First, that when notion of the existence of something in the mind excluded from its concep- which properties are united. His protions the essential properties of mat-perties are things that he well knows; ter, it had nothing left within its -his some-thing, is no-thing that he Secondly, that as far as the essential does know; and yet it appears to him properties of any being are known, so more rational to unite his known promuch is known of its essence or na-perties to his unknown something, ture. Thirdly, that the doctrine of an unknown substratum leads to specu

lative atheism.

grasp.

A conjecture was somewhat hastily expressed, namely, that " solidity

may be the essence of matter, and consciousness the essence of spirit." But as I know nothing of essences, as real entities, distinct from certain aggregates of indissolubly united properties, I cannot admit that any single property is entitled to such a denomination. I therefore disapprove of that phraseology, and pass over the remarks which it occasioned.

M. S. has frequently found himself in the same plight as myself, but adopted a different plan to extricate himself: he has reasoned thus; "If I presume on the existence of no permanent principle or substance, I must then grant that there is solidity while there is nothing that is solid; extension, while nothing is extended; shape, while nothing possesses figure; and I suspected that I was thus involved in greater difficulties, and surrounded by greater inconsistencies, than if I allowed the existence of something in which these properties were united, though I could not separate them from it without destroying

* Imperial Magazine, vol. i. col. 980.

and to give it "a local habitation and existence, and admit that an assema name," than to deny a doubt of its blage of attributes constitute as well as imply a subject.

It must, I think, be admitted, that, which side soever we take of this question, difficulties and inconsistencies present themselves; and we only differ as to the side on which they pre

ponderate. M. S. thinks that they incline to the latter; and I judge them to be more numerous and weighty against the former; and with these views we shall probably both throw down our pens, and agree to differ.

"that

M. S. observes very justly, God can create substances different in principle, and bearing different and even opposite properties; and infers, "therefore there may be matter and spirit." But is not one of these substances matter? and is not matter one of these substances?—and though the terms are different, and do not produce precisely the same mode of conception, yet do they not both refer to the same thing, namely, to a substance called matter? And as a particular constitution, or the essential properties of any being, constitutes the nature of that being, as we know something of the constitution and properties of matter, how can its nature or essence be

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On the Substratum of Matter.

unknown? The essential properties of any being, bear a similar relation to that being, that the parts of an object bear to the whole, with this difference, that while the parts of a whole may exist separately, essential properties cannot; they are indissolubly united. And as a whole is not distinct from all its parts, though distinguished by a different name; so neither are properties different from their subjects, tho' distinguished by particular names. A material substance is a certain aggregate of properties, and a certain indissolubly united aggregate of properties is a material substance.

In contending for his "mysterious principle," your correspondent, after the example of others, presents it to us in very different capacities. 1. We have it as a prop; in this it bears properties. 2. As a subject of inhesion; in this properties stick in it. 3. As a cement; and in this capacity, it unites properties with itself. But how solidity, extension, and figure, can either rest upon, inhere in, or be blended with, this unknown phantom, completely baffles my conceptions. That it cannot perform all these offices, is certain, as each of them presents to us modes of existence incompatible with each other. There seems to be as much mystery about the use of this principle" as of its nature; and all that is said in its favour amounts to this, that it is some thing, and is connected with properties some how.

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Your correspondent says, that" the principal charge I bring against the existence of a primary material substance is, that it cannot be the object "of our senses, and therefore we can "know nothing of it."* In this he has erred; I bring no such charge, nor ever intended. I reject it, because it is inconceivable by the mind, not because it is imperceptible by sense. confess that I do believe that the materials of our knowledge are originally derived through the medium of the senses. But then we have evidence sufficient to justify a belief in the existence of objects impervious to sense, though their particular nature is not directly known. The existence of spirits, we infer from their operations: of their nature we know little, but as the negative of matter. And if the nature of matter itself were unknown,

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they would be a novel negative indeed! "It is because we have no idea of spirit, (says a great writer) that we are naturally led to express it by a negative, to call it immaterial substance, or something that is not matter, something that is not anything we know."+

M. S. has backed his opinion by a quotation from an authority to whom I yield more than a common deference; but should the inference which atheists have drawn from the doctrine of an unknown substratum prove illogical when closely examined, if the principle be false, and the phraseology improper that leads to such a result, it is of importance to reject them.

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Allow me, Sir, to write another paragraph, and I will then thankfully quit this "land of darkness," this thorny path," these "bogs and brakes of metaphysics;" for," my weary soul" is already" sick of journeying," and I am almost ready to "sink into a state of supineness and apathy," counting it all "vanity, and vexation of spirit." It is a charge of treason I have now to repel, and perhaps nothing else would have raised this last muscular effort, and the last particle of mental energy, that will be directed by me against this "palpable obscure." It seems, that to deny a substratum of matter, is an attempt to shift from his seat an aged and an unseen sovereign. This is a serious charge, but it is " as false as it is foul.". To deny the existence of a sovereign, is not the same thing as an attempt to depose him. The " gentlemen" who deny the existence of this mysterious, unseen, aged sovereign, have been at no small pains to discover his nature, and his residence; but having failed in their attempts, they suspect that he is nobody, and that his residence is nowhere. In this opinion I concur with them; but lest there should be, after all, such an old gentleman, I will say no more against him, but leave him in the undisturbed possession of his invisible sovereignty. It was my intention to extend my remarks on the origin of human knowledge; I have, however, declined this, and shall only notice the opinion, that "all our notions of the spiritual world are purely negative." On this subject, I am happy that we are not left to the wild vagaries of unassisted reason.

+ Wesley's Philosophy, vol. v. p. 153.
2 M

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Fragment of a Day-Book.

FRAGMENT OF A DAY-BOOK.

(Concluded from col. 413.)

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ing of Orestes and Pylades, in the most comical manner imaginable. Riviére performed also the operation of a dentist with Mandini. After a few scenes of the like nature, one represented living pictures, according to wellknown subjects, viz: Achilles (Madame Le Brun) discovered by Ulysses amongst the companions of Deidamia (princess Dolgorucki:) Stratonice on the sick-bed of her son, (the princess again ;) the tent of Darius, &c. Mme. Le Brun ordered the positions, the illumination, &c. with so much taste, that this kind of spectacle afforded great amusement. All Petersburg regretted the departure of Cobenzl; because nobody equals him in com

"16th July.-The king assisted with the whole court at the marriage of count Dietrichstein, with the lady of honour Alexandrine Schuwaloff: the ceremony took place in the diningroom, and the Nuntius Litta wore the dress of a bishop. After that, the act was repeated in the chapel, according to the rites of the Greek church, whereby Count Schuwaloff held the garland over the head of the bride. The empress had adorned the bride with her own hands, and she wore diamonds to the value of a million of rubles. "On the 17th the emperor embark-placency, ease, and all that renders ed with his whole family for Cronstadt, and took the most hearty leave of the king."

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society agreeable. On his theatre performed princess Dolgorucki the part of Camilla, to the admiration of every one; and on the very evening of his setting off, the embassador lent himself, for the pleasure of the company, by fitting himself out as a hen, and all the present children as chickens, which he defended against every attack in a very ludicrous manner."

"Gatschina, 9th September, and fol

bishops, who had been knighted, made a speech to the emperor. It is to be remarked, that only under the present government the bishops have received red and blue ribands. At the ball, which was given in the evening, the empress asked the king, whether he played at cards? and when he acknow

Kammenoy-Ostrog, near Petersburg. On the 24th the king went to a country-seat of prince Kurakin. The princess Dolgorucki,an intimate friend of the family, celebrated, as usual, the birth-day of princess K- at Alexandrowskie. The festivity had been advanced this year by a whole month, on account of the approaching depar-lowing days. One of the three Russian ture of the Austrian embassador, count Cobenzl, who is a great friend of both the ladies, and whose taste has always enlivened their social amusements. The company went first to a thicket; where the children of both families offered, in shops of green branches, various things for sale, such as flowers, fruit, music, &c. Instead of sign-ledged his ignorance on that point, boards, these shops had inscriptions drawn from the best and most known authors, and befitting the occasion. One of the children made a speech, and then they all united in merry dances. From this place, one proceeded to the theatre of the castle: the princess Dolgorucki acted most excellently a scene of Nina, or insanity caused by love. Thereupon followed representations of the magic lantern behind a curtain of gauze: the director of the lantern appeared, and announced the rising of the sun, and this sun was the Austrian embassador dressed in brocade, and his head surrounded by beams of gilded pasteboard; he was followed by the moon, represented by Mandini, the first Italian singer, who gave afterwards, with Mr. De Riviére, a brother-in-law of Mme. Le Brun, the painter, the part

the emperor said that it was the same with him: but I, said the empress, must play a little at picquet par contenance; and she did then play for about half an hour with the fieldmarshals Soltikoff, Repnin, and Kamenskoy. On the 10th, the king requested the emperor to give him somebody, who could point out to him all the beauties of Gatschina; and immediately was the general-adjutant Pleschtschejeff sent to him as his 'guide: this man, who has served in the English navy, has the reputation of saying always what he thinks; and whatever he says, bespeaks a man of honour. He went with the king through the subterraneous passages, which remind one of the catacombs, to the top of the tower: the interior division of the walls is still the same as in the time when Count George Orloff was in pos

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session of the castle; but the emperor | enfeld, a marquis de Montmort, the old well-known French performer Aus rène, and Mr. Riviére, were appointed, for the remainder. In the second piece performed princess Dolgorucki herself with her wonted superiority, and her charming children appeared as harlequins.

has enlarged it very much, and has decorated it entirely to his own liking. A Polish painter, Labinski, has furnished, amongst others, the finest Arabesks. Under the great number of paintings, one remarks five large portraits by Robert; one seven feet high by Vernet; Charles the Third of Spain at dinner; and a stag-hunt, which prince Condé gave to the emperor when he visited him at Chantilli as grand duke, &c. The three graces, painted on a piece of marble, are less remarkable for their beauty, than because they have been dug up at Herculaneum. A representation of Peter the Great on horseback, is perhaps the best which one has of him, but the horse might be better: the dress is more modern than one is accustomed to see from that epoch, and the painter has forgotten the star of the order of St. Andrew. In the drawing-room an antique basrelief is placed over the chimney, which has been so well pre- | served, that one might almost doubt the truth of what is asserted about it: they say, that it had originally decorated a monument of Trajan, and that from that it had been transplanted with several others to the triumphant arch of Constantine, whence thieves had torn it off during the night, and sold it to chief-chamberlain Schuwaloff, who was just then travelling in Italy. In the cabinet of the emperor hang five portraits-Prince Henry of Prussia, betwixt four Russian fieldmarshals. As for the garden, the king has but slightly glanced at it, for the present. The emperor seemed highly pleased with the king's good opinion of a place in which he delights so much himself: he said, it appears to me as if I were no where at home but here. It certainly must be acknowledged that even Pawbowski, pretty as it is, can be called but a small diamond, when compared with Gatschina.

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"On the 23d October, a Greek bishop lodged with the king; his name is Eugene, and he was born at Corfu. Without having ever been a monk, he was named by Catharine to be bishop of Tauria. He resigned after a few years, to spend his pension here. He has translated an Eneide in Greek verses, and, according to the judgment of connoisseurs, his performance is a very good one: he speaks French and Italian, and knows the best authors of these nations. His conversation is spiritual, and one does not perceive his eighty years."

"Gatschina, 26th October.-The emperor treated the empress to-day to an Italian Opera seria by Anfossi, which was excellently executed. The decorator, (scene-painter,) Gonzaga, has surpassed himself: he is one of the first artists in his line, and knows how to produce optical effects which border on enchantment; although the house is but small, and the principal spectators are placed immediately behind the orchestra: even on the curtain stands a temple which seems to project, seen at a distance of only six feet: a woody district of his produces the effect of a painting by Breughel; a sun-beam coming through a window of a prison, was absolutely deceiving; and he has painted walls al fresco, which delude the eye, notwithstanding prior information. After the opera, Le Pieg gave a ballet, in which he showed himself to great advantage, in spite of his sixty years. On the 24th November, the emperor had the opera repeated on the court theatre in Petersburg; and as this is by far larger than that in Gatschina, Gonzaga was obliged to paint fresh sceneries in the greatest haste: this served anew to prove his fruitful genius, and his extraordinary skill. The play which had been announced for the 28th, was countermanded as soon as the emperor learned of the death of the king of Prussia."

Petersburg, 17th October.-Prince Dolgorucki surprised the king in the evening with a theatre, which he had erected, during the king's absence, in the marble palace. One gave two French pieces: Lecon seit paternel; and Le bon menage, by Florian. The author of the first is a count Golofflin, who was educated abroad: the piece is Petersburg, 5th December.-This actually full of new and interesting day, prince Condé visited the king, and scenes. Madame Litwinoff acted the declared that he should have known principal part; a a Bavarian count Lerch-him again, as he had had the pleasure

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