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MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.

5. Represents a wheel driven by a pinion of two teeth. The pinion consists in reality of two cams, which gear with two distinct series of teeth on opposite sides of the wheel, the teeth of one series alternating in position with those of the other.

used and discarded a gas engine, and now has one
of Sir William Armstrong's hydraulic engines of
ordinary construction. This looks very big and
clumsy, and the workmanship is not first-rate.
It possesses also the additional disadvantage of
running at a very slow speed. Altogether we
should have thought a small turbine preferable, 6. A continuous circular movement of the
and failing that, a steam engine with a boiler ratchet-wheel, produced by the vibration of the
heated by gas. Of course when the lathe is lever carrying two pawls, one of which engages
being driven by a belt, the treadle crank is un- the ratchet-teeth in rising and the other in falling.
7. A modification of No. 10, shown last week,
by means of twe worms and worm-wheels.

hooked.

The leading screw is driven by a bright set of engine cut change wheels; and from this screw various motions are got for the other movements of the slide rest, which is self-acting on the longitudinal or traversing, the traverse or surfacing, the angular and the curvilinear cuts. These motions, it will be seen, are all contained in a very small space; and the neatness of contrivance indicates the possession of considerable ingenuity on the part of the designer.

The screw headstock has the base slide arrangement for setting out of centre when taper turning, and the usual pinching arrangement at the side for holding the spindle fast, and preventing shake. The cone spindle is shown with the compound eccentric chuck on its nose. It has a large division-plate completely divided; tangent and screw motion for slow rotation; and another arrangement at the side for slow traversing.

The overhead apparatus is very compact and convenient. Its whole arrangement is, however so plainly shown by our illustrations, that a description is scarcely necessary.

1.

8. A pin-wheel and slotted pinion, by which three changes of speed can be obtained. There are three circles of pins of equal distance on the face of the pin-wheel, and by shifting the slotted pinion along its shaft, to bring it in contact with one or the other of the circles of pins, a continuous rotary motion of the wheel is made to produce three changes of speed of the pinion, or vice versa.

9. Represents a mode of obtaining motion from rolling contact. The teeth are for making the motion continuous, or it would cease at the point of contact shown in the figure. The forked catch is to guide the teeth into proper contact.

10. By turning the shaft carrying the curved slotted arm, a rectilinear motion of variable velocity is given to the vertical bar,

11. A continuous rotary motion of the large wheel gives an intermittent rotary motion to the pinion-shaft. The part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut of the same curve as the plain portion of the circumference of the wheel, and therefore serves as a lock while the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and until the pin upon the wheel strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion-shaft commences another revo

lution.

MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS.* (Continued from page 28.) 12. What is called the "Geneva-stop," used A continual rotation of the pinion (ob-in Swiss watches to limit the number of revolutions tained through the irregular-shaped gear at in winding-up; the convex curved part ab of the left, gives a variable vibrating movement to the horizontal arm, and a variable reciprocating movement to the rod, A.

2. Worm or endless screw and worm wheel. Used when steadiness or great power is required. 3. A regular vibrating movement of the curved slotted arm gives a variable vibration to the straight arm.

4. An illustration of the transmission of rotary motion from one shaft to another, arranged ob liquely to it, by means of rolling contact.

Extracted from a compilation by Mr. H. J. Brown,

Editor of the American Artisan.

the wheel B serving as the stop.

13. Another kind of stop for the same purpose. 14 and 15. Other modifications of the stop, the operations of which will be easily understood by a comparison with 12.

(To be continued.)

THE PEDESPEED.

(Illustrated on page 61.)

FEW mornings since, says the Scientific

A American, a quiet gentleman and a hand

elder of the two gentlemen entered into conversation with us, the younger undid the package, disclosing a pair of wheels some fourteen or fifteen inches in diameter, to which were attached some stout hickory stirrup-like appendages, in the bottoms of which were foot pieces, shaped like the woods of common skates.

On one side of the stirrup-like appendages were firmly fastened metallic plates, each having a short axle or bearing projecting from its centre, upon which the wheels above-mentioned turned. The stirrup-like appendages were made of flat strips of wood about three inches wide in the broadest portion, bent so that one side was nearly straight, while the other was made to meet it about midway to form a sort of loop. In the bottom of this loop were placed the foot-pieces above described, provided with toe straps and a clasp for the heel. To the upper end of the stirrups was attached a piece of wood to fit the outer and upper conformation of the calves of the legs.

the young gentleman-who was subsequently inIn less time than it took us to note these points troduced to us as the son of the inventor of this commenced rapidly gliding about among chairs singular device-had strapped on the wheels and and tables with singular swiftness and graceful

ness.

cute with seemingly perfect ease, the inside and A space being cleared he proceeded to exeoutside roll, figure of eight, &c. &c., amply demonstrating that the "pedespeed" has all the capabilities of the skate, both in the variety and grace of the evolutions that can be performed with it.

of this invention. Of course no mere carpet Our engraving gives an excellent representation knight accustomed to roll about on the common parlour skate, can use these at the first attempt. They require practice; but when skill is once attained, there is skating the year round. Had the

66

pedespeed" been introduced on our rinks this winter during the long period stockholders have prayed in vain for ice, their stock would have stood higher in the market than it does at present.

The "pedespeed" is light and strong, and is capable of use on surfaces where the ordinary parlour skate would be useless. The inventor, a large and heavy man, informs us he can use it constantly for two hours without fatigue. For gymnasiums, colleges, and parts of the country where no ice ever occurs, it affords a delightful, healthful, and graceful pastime at all seasons of the year.

When used by ladies, shields may be employed some youth walked into our sanctum, bringing to cover the top of the wheels, so as to protect the with them a queer-looking package. While the dress.

SCIENCE FOR THE YOUNG.

SERIES I.-MECHANICS.
INTRODUCTION.

BY THE REV. E. KERNAN.

THE
HE object of these papers is to lay out for the
beginner in Mechanical and Physical science
a course from which he will never require to de-
viate permanently, no matter to what extent cir-
cumstances may induce him in after years to in-
crease his scientific acquirements.

scholar.

applied to the liquid state has arisen the science | separate chamber, 20ft. by 20ft., and 20ft. high of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics; from their The key notes, or "claviers," as they are techaiextension to the gaseous state has resulted the cally called, are made of massive ivory, and so science of pneumatics. Passing to the confines exquisitely balanced that the least touch is suffiof the ponderable world, to the connecting link cient to sound them, and, in fact, notwithstanding between matter tangible and untangible, sound the size of the organ, any lady could play upon it is discovered to require no new principles. Reach- with the same ease and with the same rapidity as ing farther, to the region of what are usually she could on a cottage piano. If anything, the termed imponderables, the principles of mechanics notes are almost too easily sounded, and scarcely have seized upon light, and made it subject to give that rest for the hand to which organists their unerring laws. By this great conquest are so much accustomed. This, however, is a fault are explained phenomena most complicated and on the right side, and one which will bear good apparently contradictory, which had before been fruits when rapid and brilliant execution is needed For such an elementary course, however, no but an enigma. By it, without fear of error, it to develop the infinite variety of tone of this great great mathematical knowledge is required; the can be shown that in such and such conditions, instrument. All the internal metal pipes are use of simple algebraical formulæ, some geome-observed which reason would be inclined to re- The front pipes are almost entirely of tin, there certain extraordinary phenomena should be made of an alloy of 5-9ths tin and 4-9ths lead. try, and the first principles of trigonometry are,ject as impossible or absurd; for instance that being 90 parts of that metal to only 10 of lead. as a rule, enough. Where exceptions occur the two lights can be a cause of darkness. It is not The outer pipes are burnished and polished in the means by which full satisfaction may be obtained surprising, then, to find Dr. Lloyd in his lectures same manner as those of the great continental later on can be indicated. Moreover, in many on light, say of Fresnel, the French philosopher, organs; the burnished metal, in fact, is made the branches of science, the great principles can be ac- who worked out the mechanical theory of light, chief ornament, and a most effective one it is. The quired scientifically, and yet simply, without that that he has "reared the noblest fabric which has organ will be supplied with wind by means of ever adorned the domains of physical science-steam power, as in the case of the Liverpool organ mathematical learning employed for their full Newton's system of the universe alone excepted." in St. George's Hall. Mr. Penn is making two theoretic development by the more advanced Even beyond light has mechanical investigation eight-horse power engines for this work, which progressed. Heat, less tangible, is being proved, will be able to work up to 50-horse power with Mechanics being the foundation of all true every day, more and more, to be but a "mode ease and give the very decided pressure of air knowledge, claims the first place in a scientific of motion." The time is perhaps not far off required for playing with full power when all the course. The series on mechanics may be divided when electricity shall cease to be that unknown stops are opened. The main reservoirs into which into three parts. The first sets forth some ne- mysterious agent, shall yield its secret to the compressed air is forced are placed in a chamcessary preliminaries, which, once determined and mechanics; showing to the wise ones to what aber in a dry position. The feeders supplying the understood, facilitate the work to come; the distance from the truth they have wandered, how air are of a most ample size, and constructed to second contains all that is usually understood by they have groped in the dark, wasting their receive their wind from the room above, and not mechanics in its widest sense; the third treats of energies in theory and speculation. from the locality in which they are placed. To bodies in a state of vibration, practically sound, carry out this arrangement, which is one of the acoustics, which is so closely connected with mehighest importance, passages are provided for the chanics that it can be shown to be contained in windshafts to and from the organ to the chamber the definition of this science. in which the main reservoirs are placed. The main reservoirs in turn deliver their wind to numerous subsidiary reservoirs in immediate connection with the pipes. The mechanical arrangements effected by the pressure of attenuated and compressed air vary from four to forty inches. The light touch of all the key-notes is alike. The pedal arrangements are divided into ten distinct parts. The external aspect of the. grand organ is very imposing. It is not disfigured by a case. The pipes, carefully graduated as to height, rise in four great clusters of spires, two at each end and two in the centre. In the three sides which front the audience are three vaulted lofty openings which allow all the works to be seen, and in the background is a perfect forest of pipes. The base, or stand, of the organ is about 21ft. high. This is of carved oak with a recessed Italian doorway in the centre, in which, at the keys, the performer sits. The oak screen which forms the external face is, however, merely a screen, for the organ itself is built on massive stone foundations, which the oak work encloses. The instrument will cost, when completed, about £10,000. It has been built under the direct supervision of Sir Michael Costa, assisted by Mr. Bowley, of the Crystal Palace, and Sir Michael pronounced it to be perfect in tone and working.

PART I.-PRELIMINARIES.

OBJECT OF MECHANICS; DIVISION OF THE

SUBJECT.

What, then, is this so much lauded mechanics? It may be differently defined, according to the point from which it is viewed. The following definition will suit the form of the present series: Mechanics is the study of the laws which regulate the action of external forces upon all bodies. These may be classed under three heads: The Bodies exist in some one of the three states, solid object of mechanics, with the division of the sub-liquid or gaseous, and the student cannot begin ject; the general properties of matter; and the too soon to keep this triple state of matter before explanation of terms required for study. his mind. That solids can be affected by forces CHAPTER I. requires no proof. For liquids it is only necessary to place a tray with water on a table; the least stir ruffles it's surface; for gases, the rushing of the "thin air," the winds, the storms supply superabundant proof. By the word external is to be understood some manifest action or effort at action; and this effort may be from the nature of the body itself, or from some external source. Thus is mechanical study distinguished from others in which action not directly manifest is the chief object: for instance, chemistry. The study of the laws includes not only the mere statement of them, but also the proofs of their truth, and their actual or possible existence in action, in natural or artificial combinations; in a word, the applications of the principles contained in the laws.

Before answering directly to the question, "What is mechanics?" it would be useful, if not even to a certain extent necessary, to say what it is not. First, then, mechanics is not the method of working in wood or in iron. They who are thus occupied are called "mechanics," but they are not thereby designated as having acquired the science of mechanics. Not but that they could possess it, and would profit much by a knowledge of its principles. Frequently their knowledge is but a mere routine of facts, handed from one to another, the cause of which they do not understand. The small amount of mind required to obtain knowledge of this class, and the fact that such knowledge is not unfrequently combined with great mental deficiency, are the reasons why the "mechanic" is not considered as having the higher gifts of intellect. Secondly, the science of mechanics is not che dull, dry study that some imagine.

A

(To be continued.)

A GRAND ORGAN.

TRIAL has been made of the tone of the grand organ which is being built for the It is quite true mechanics do not possess for Royal Albert Hall, at the works of Mr. Willis, at some the interest which, for example, the bril- Camden-town. This magnificient instrument is liant experimental part of chemistry excites. But remarkable not only on account of its size and the if so it has none of the dull, plodding, mere me- number of its pipes, but also on account of the mory work of theoretic chemistry. Every propo- excellence of its design and construction. It is sition of mechanics sparkles with proof, mathema- 65ft. wide, 70ft. high, and 40ft. deep. It weighs tical and experimental. With a pencil and paper over 150 tons, and has nearly 10,000 pipes in it. the thousand phenomena which may occur are The largest pipes are 2ft. 6in. diameter-the discussed, and their cause, result of combination, smallest about a couple of inches long, and not &c., declared; the instruments are brought for much thicker than a barley straw. In all there ward, and experiments prove the truth of the are some nine miles length of pipes of various sizes. theory. Again, the constant occurrence within There are no less than 138 stops, 20 couplings, us and around us of the exemplification of me- and 60 combination pedals and pistons. The chanical principles is a new source of interest to extreme range of compass from the highest to the an intelligent mind. So far what mechanics is lowest notes is nine octaves apart. There are four not. Now, on the other side, mechanics is that sets of manual keys and one set of pedals. The part of natural knowledge which best deserves manual keys extend from C C to C in altissimo, the name of a "science." For its principles or sixty-one notes; and the pedal from CCC to have, of all others, been put to the severest of G, or thirty-two notes. The pedal organ consists tests-length of time, found as they are in the of twenty-one stops, the choir organ of twenty very first pages of the history of science; extent stops, the great organ of twenty-five stops, the of application, including, as they do, everything in swell organ of twenty-five stops, the solo organ of the cosmic system that has as yet been brought twenty stops, and there are fourteen couplers. into a really scientific form. And so strictly is Eight pneumatic combination pistons govern the this latter true, that the fundamental principles of whole of the stops of each manual range of keys, mechanics are every day extending themselves to and these are so placed below and in frent of the new branches, rendering clear and logical what was keys as to be at all times within instant reach of the before but a collection of facts, without explana-Lands of the performer. Six pedals govern the tion other than obscurities or contradictions. stops of the pedal organ. The "Swell" is, as Thus from the principles of mechanics of solids usual, in the rear of the organ, and will be in a

THE

THE DETERMINATION OF THE PER-
CENTAGE OF SULPHUR IN IRONS.
HE analysis of irons is becoming increasingly
important, and the small quantities of im-
purities, which greatly alter their quality, renders
accuracy indispensable, and adds to the difficulty
of ensuring it. Although not sulphur, but phos-
phorus, is the greatest hindrance to the produc-
tion of good iron, being generally present in a
larger quantity, the former is nevertheless inju-
rious. It may therefore be acceptable to those
who are interested in the subject if I describe the
method which has to my mind been the most
satisfactory in the estimation of the quantity of
sulphur in irons. I have analysed several speci-
mens of pig iron according to the solution in
nitrochloric acid method, with all due precau-
tions, which, although exceedingly important, are
often omitted in explanations of the process. The
following are results of the analyses :-

Sample

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1st anal. 2nd anal. Dif. No. I. per cent, of S. 0:48 0.03 No. II. No. III. No. IV.

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The precipitate with chloride of barium does not make its appearance until after warming the

olation for some time. After filtering and washing it well with boiling water it is seldom if ever possible to render it white, which is objectionable to a careful chemist. However, if the sulphate is precipitated it all, I am convinced that it is entirely precipttated, and with such results as I have given above there is scarcely cause to complain much of the process. As, however, puddle bars contain a very small quantity of sulphur, at least 10 grammes of iron in fine powder must be employed in order to obtain a weighable and reliable quantity of sulphate of barium. More acid must consequently be used, and it is impossible to obtain a precipitate in the strongly acid solution, which, for well known reasons, must not be neutralised.

I will, therefore, briefly describe the method which I have employed to estimate sulphur in puddle bars and other irons containing small quantities of that element-a method which has given me highly satisfactory results.

SUCTION THRE

chloride of barium was added in large excess,
and the solution heated for some hours and then
allowed to stand a whole day and heated again.
It may be interesting to some to give a few of
my results:-

Sample.
No.
No. II.
No. III.

Dif.

And, for circular polarisation :-The Nicols being crossed and the needle pointing to 80% in favour of the platinum spiral, a plate of rock crystal cut perpendicular to the axis was placed across the dark beam. The needle fell to zero, and went to 90% on the other side.

ORDINARY PUDDLE BARS. The penetrative power of the heat here 1st anal. 2nd anal. employed may be inferred from the fact that it I. per cent. of S. 0:038 0:026 0-012 traversed about 12in. of Iceland spar, and about 0.073 0.088 0015 14in. of the cell containing the solution of iodine. 0.033 0.015 One could scarcely expect more satisfactory results than these are.

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H. B. HAMILTON, Analytical Chemist.

ON THE POLARISATION OF HEAT. *
BY PROFESSOR TYNDALL, F.R.S., &c.

N

sagacity Melloni turned to account his own dis-
covery, that the obscure rays of luminons sources
were in part transmitted by black glass. Inter-
cepting by a plate of this glass the light emitted
by his oil lamp, and operating upon the trans-
mitted heat, he obtained effects exceeding in
magnitude any that could be obtained by means
of the radiation from obscure sources. The
possession of a more perfect ray-filter and a more
powerful source of heat enables us now to obtain,
on a greatly augmented scale, the effects obtained
by Forbes and Melloni.

Two large Nicol's prisms, such as those
employed in my experiments on the polarisation
of light by nebulous matter, were placed in
front of an electrie lamp, and so supported
that either of them could be turned round its
horizontal axis. The beam from the lamp,
rendered slightly convergent by the camera-lens,
was sent through both prisms. But between them
was placed a cell containing iodine dissolved in
bisulphide of carbon in quantity sufficient to
quench the strongest solar light. Behind the
prisms was placed a thermo-electric pile, furnished
with two conical reflectors. The hinder face of
the pile received heat from a platinum spiral
through which passed an electric current regu-
lated by a rheostat.

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ON THE PHENOMENA OF COM-
BUSTION.

SPECIAL REPORT.

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HE last of the present series of Cantor Lectures on this subject was delivered by Dr. Benjamin Paul, F.C.S., on Monday, 28th ult., in the presence of a large audience. A weighed quantity of iron is thrown into a the Philosophical Magazine for November, lecture had specially to do with the unce. The 1835, the late Principal Forbes gave an bustible materials for producing light, with the capacious flask (about 2 pints capacity); about account of the experiments by which he demon- varieties of illuminating materials-coal gas, poan ounce of water added, and the whole agitated strated the polarisation of non-luminous heat. troleum, and paraffin oil, and also with the to prevent caking in the after processes. A cork He first operated with tourmalines, and after-measurement of light. At the outset, the lechaving two perforations is inserted into its mouth. wards, by a happy inspiration, devised piles of turer observed that the evolution of light was Into one of these perforations passes a tube with mica plates, which from their greater power of another of the effects of combustion which was of practical utility. It was chiefly by means of combulb and funnel bent and containing a little mer- transmission enabled him more readily and concury to allow of pouring into the flask, but to pre-clusively to establish the fact of polarisation. bustion that artificial light was produced. One vent back action. Into the other passes a tube The subject was subsequently followed up by important fact we had to consider in regard to bent at right-angles leading to a U tube, contain- Melloni and other philosophers. With great combustion as a source of light was that all maing caustic potash free from sulphate. (Beyond terial substances became luminous when they were sufficiently heated, and this was a special this U tube I placed another containing hydrated oxide of lead in solution by caustic potash, which characteristic of solid substances, which, howafter repeated analyses was not in the slightest ever, were not changed in their condition or degree blackened.) nature by such heating. Having shown the luminosity of solid substances by experiment, Dr. Paul adverted to the fact that liquids also became luminous when heated, under conditions, however, when they were not converted into vapour. Melted metals and glass, for instance, emitted light at high temperatures; gases and vapours were least of all capable of luminosity when heated. At a temperature of 1000 degrees, liquid substances emitted a reddish light, and this degree of heat was termed "red heat," which again, in proportion to the temperaturé, was distinguished by the names "red,” or “ dall" heat; or again by those of " "cherry red or "brick red." At very high temperatures, solid and liquid substances gave a colourless light, termed "white heat." To produce artificial light, we must first obtain a very high temperature in some substance capable of becoming luminous in that condition. If hydrogen gas were burned with oxygen, a very intense degree of heat would be attained, but the water vapour which was the product in this gas had such a degree of continuity that it gave a gas affording barely sufficient light to be visible. After explaining the production of lime-light, and showing some experiments with magnesia, the lecturer adverted to carbon. Carbonaceous substances were easy to illuminate. The chief characteristic of very inflammable substances was the presence of carbon, which in some cases was as much as 80 per cent. Oil, tallow, and the various materials used in lamps were susceptible of vaporisation, and that, too, without giving any fixed carbonaceous residue, which was not the case with coal, wood, resin, or such materials. Dr. Paul next asked attention to the form of flame, which, he said, was partly determined by the way in which the combustible gas was supplied, and partly by the reaction of the heated product of combustion and the atmosphere upon each other. The shape of the luminous flame might be different from that of a candle, but in every zones in which the progressive changes took case there was the same relative disposition of the place. The production of flame from any substance corresponded to the amount of carbon it contained, and to this was owing the difference between the flame from a candle and that from merits of olefiaut, marsh, and benzole gases, the coal gas. After some remarks on the comparative lecturer alluded to paraffin oil, and said that, whereas marsh gas contained 75 per cent of carbon, paraffin oil contained 85, and the former contained half as much carbon as olefiant gas. The vapour of marsh gas contained one-seventeenth much carbon in a given volume as the vapour of parafiin, which was very much more deuse.

Hydrochloric acid is poured in at the funnel, and suction applied to draw it through the mercury into the flask; sometimes water is added, and then acid, until there is a large excesss of acid. When the action, after due addition of acid, is very slow, the contents of the flask are boiled, then the flame taken away, and as soon as ebullition has ceased air is sucked through the apparatus. The boiling can after be advantageously repeated, and the suction again continued. The still caustic solution in the U tube is emptied and rinsed out into a beaker. Pure chlorine gas is passed through it; after boiling, sufficient hydrochloric acid is added to drive off the hypochlorous acid, and the boiling is continued until all or nearly all the smell of this acid is gone. The sulphate is then precipitated with chloride of barium.

The contents of the flask are filtered through asbestos. A small funnel with a rather ill-proportioned large neck is chosen. Enough asbestos loosely to fit into the neck is taken and thrown into the funnel, without any placing or pressing with the fingere. On pouring water in to fill the funnel, the pieces of asbestos swim about in the liquid, and gradually settle in the neck in such a manner that the acid solution can be filtered

quickly and perfectly clearly. After it has all gone through, the flask need not be rinsed out, or the residue in funnel washed; but the latter should be transferred with the asbestos to the flask again, and the funnel washed with a very small quantity of nitrochloric acid, which is allowed to trickle into the flask also. The black

The apparatus was so arranged that, when the principal sections of the Nicols were crossed the needle of the galvanometer connected with the pile showed a deflection of 90° in favour of the posterior source of heat. One of the prisms was then turned so as to render the principal sections parallel. The needle immediately descended to zero, and passed on to 90° at the other side of it. Reversing, or continuing the motion, so as to render the principal sections again perpendicular to each other, the calorific sheaf was intercepted, the needle descended to zero and went up to its first position.

So copious, indeed, is the ow of polarised heat that a prompt rotation of the Nicol would cause the needle to spin several times round over its graduated dial.

These experiments were made with the delicat galvanometer employed in my researches up

radiant heat. But the action is so strong as to

cause a coarse lecture-room galvanometer, with
needles 6in. long and paper indexes a square
inch each in area, to move through an arc of
nearly 1809.

Reflection, refraction, dispersion, polarisation residue mixed with nitrohydrochloric acid in very tion of invisible images both by mirrors and (plane and circular), double refraction, the formasmall quantity is heated, covering the mouth of lenses, may all be strikingly illustrated by the the flask with a glass plate. Some water and carbonate of soda is added to take off the excess employment of the iodine filter and the electric light. of acid, and the liquid, after boiling, is filtered Take, for example, the following experiments: through paper, taking care that it is still slightly-The Nicols being crossed, the needle of the acid, and, of course, washed. Chloride of barium galvanometer pointed to 788 in favour of the is added to this solution, and if, as is often the heated platinum spiral behind the pile. A plato case, a precipitate be produced, the whole is of mica was then placed across the dark beam poured into the beaker with the former precipi- with its principal section inclined at an angle of tate, and treated in the usual manner. By this 45° to those of the Nicols. The needle instantly method I obtained highly satisfactory results from fell to zero, and went up to 90% on the other side. irons which, according to the other process, would

not show the least sign of precipitation when

From the Philosophical Magazine.

as

The same was the case with benzole gas, which contained four times as much carbon as an equal volume of marsh gas. The latter gas burnt with a pale flame, leaving no sooty deposit or luminous effect, and the former burnt with an intensely luminous flame, and over and above

that left a large deposit of carbon, which, unless regulated, rendered the flame sooty and smoky. In all illuminating materials it was necessary to regulate the conditions in such a way that we might get a deposit of carbon to such an extent as would make a flame in the highest degree luminous, without overstepping the line at which it became smoky. The lecturer next referred to the heat of rooms, and observed that most people seemed to forget that in proportion to the quantity of artificial heat introduced into a room in that proportion was the air deteriorated. Olefiant gas produced the greatest effect upon the atmosphere, by destroying the largest amount of air; marsh gas next; carbonic acid gas next, and hydrogen gas least of all, because it was the most volatile. Dr. Paul then referred to the complaints so rife relative to the bad quality of the gas now supplied, and said that although these complaints might to some extent be based on just grounds, yet he thought much of the fault lay with the burners in use. He here exhibited some of Mr. Sugg's improved burners, and con

cluded by regretting that the time at his disposal had prevented him from entering into the interesting subject of paraffin oil.

We understand that the next series of Cantor Lectures will be given by Dr. Williams, on "Fermentation," and that they will take place on the last two Mondays in April, and the first two Mondays in May.

STRUCTURE OF THE LIVER.

AN important paper on this subject by Professor Hering, of Vienna, appears in the just published third part of Stricker's Handbuch von den Geweben. This gland is the most intricate in the body of the higher animals, and its functions present a corresponding complexity; on these grounds it has been subjected to very careful microscopical examination, as well as experimental investigation, by many of the best observers, both here and abroad, amongst whom Professor Hering holds a distinguished place. Speaking broadly, the liver consists of an immense number of pear-shaped bodies or lobuli, separated from one another by a delicate investment of connective tissue. Between these spread branches of the portal vein, conveying blood to the liver from the intestines, and of the hepatic artery, the ultimate branches of the latter discharging themselves into those of the former. The capillary vessels thus formed penetrate the substance of each lobule and reunite in a central vessel, which, issuing from the extremity of the lobule like the stalk of a pear, coalesces with others to form the hepatic veins which convey the blood that has circulated through the organ to the heart. The substance of the lobuli themselves is composed of cells, the office of which is in part to secrete bile, and in part to produce the substance termed glycogen. The writer observes that the capillary system of the portal vein, as a general rule, exhibits large capillaries and a narrow-meshed plexus, whilst that of the hepatic vein exhibits small capillaries and a plexus with wide meshes. The foregoing facts are now fairly established, but the points to which Professor Hering's attention has been particularly directed are connected with the distribution of the biliary ducts. These, he states, consist of a close net work of delicate canals running between the hepatic cells, with meshes equalling the cells in diameter, or, in other words, the canals run between the flat surfaces of two adjoining cells. The capillaries, on the other hand, occupy the angles formed by the junction of three or more cells. This description particularly applies to the rabbit. In man and the dog, biliary canals are also found at the angles of the cells. For the sake of clearness, we have made use of the term biliary canals, but Professor Hering observes that they have no proper wall so long as they are contained within the lobuli. in fact, the cells themselves, and they may fairly be represented by the tubes that would be produced by grooving two solid bodies, and applying the corresponding channels to one another. He has not been able, in any instance, in the rabbit at least, to discover a blind extremity of a biliary tube. He describes the hepatic cells as presenting various forms, according to the direction in which they happen to be divided in the section, being sometimes quadrangular, sometimes polygonal, and presenting the grooves above mentioned for the passage of the capillaries, and for the formation of the ducts. They contain one,

These walls are,

or occasionally two, nuclei of spherical or elliptica spectre; this photograph is simply applied at shape, together with some granules of biliary pig- the posterior side of the reflecting part, and oiled ment and fat molecules. He finds the liver to be in order to add to its transparency. This toy is richly supplied with lymphatics, which, as in varied in very different ways, and has just been other organs, chiefly accompany the connective applied in the new play of "The White Cat," at tissue. The system presents this peculiarity, Paris, and has caused an immense sensation. So however, that both the capillaries and the larger I have no doubt that the inventive mind of the vessels freely anastomose with each other. Though Americans will find thousands of applications he has carefully examinedt he point, he has been for this property, either in applying it to the unable to follow the nerves of the liver into the decoration of stores, or to external ornamentscells, a relation which has been maintained to tion. In theatres or concert halls among flowers exist by Pflüger. (Academy, No. II., p. 47.) it produces the most fairy-like effect. The winProfessor Hering states distinctly that all demon- dow glasses of a parlour made thus would strable nerve trunks lie outside the lobuli. transparent in daytime, and at night when the shutters are closed the whole window woud appear as a large looking-glass, and reflect all lights and objects in the apartment.

PLATINISED LOOKING-GLASSES.*

BY C. WIDEMANN.

NO. III.

(Continued from page 27.)

IT is now unnecessary to use glass free from colour or to require parallelisms of the two surfaces. Bubbles of air, stripes, foreign bodies, the process. There is then an economy of 50 pieces of the pots, &c., &c., do not interfere with per cent. in the glass.

In order to manufacture a looking-glass of 5 millimetres thickness, they use at the St. Gobain works a plate measuring 10 millimetres thickness. At the Wailly-sur-Aisne works, plates are used having but 7.5 millimetres thickness, as it is only necessary to polish the glass on one side. From

this a saving is made of 25 per cent on the thickness of the glass.

Very correct calculations show that Mr. Dodé secures an economy of 50 per cent. on platinised glasses, as he uses for that purpose only inferior glass commonly used for flagons; even common brittle glass can be used without the least difficulty. To this saving there is another te be added, which will astonish the reader. A square metre of glass absorbs abont 183 grammes of mercury and 550 grammes of tin, representing about a cost of 4 francs, 40 centimes. A square yard of platinised glass costs 1 franc and 20 centimes for platina. It results from this, that at the Wailly-sur-Aisne works, the superficial square yard of platinised glass is sold at an average of 25 francs. This price is doubled in the mercury manufacture.

There is another circumstance for which this new process is recommended to the public. It is with great difficulty that mirrors are obtained with a curved surface. By the platina process this difficulty disappears, and it is as easy to manufacture curved, round, etc., as horizontal mirrors. There is also no inconvenience arising from upsetting the glasses in transportation or in placing them in the frame.

The manufacture of glasses with amalgam necessitates great labour. In order to obtain 50 metres of looking-glass a large number of hands and a large plot of ground are required. These

glasses must remain loaded with weights from 15

to 20 days; then 20 days more are required to three months more are required before they are eliminate the superabundance of mercury, and have to be taken at every moment in the shipsaleable; not to mention all the precautions that ping and setting in frame. MM. Dode and Faure are able to platinise a surface of 800 metres a day, with only the aid of a few hands, as one Workman is able to platinise 50 metres of glass

in 12 hours' work.

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The temperature of the exhaust steam from a condensing engine is from 130° to 1408 Fahr., and that from a non-condensing engine is from 2129 to 2208 and upward, varying aecording to the amount of back pressure in either ease. A portion of the escaping heat is generally utilised in heating the feed-water for the boiler. In the condensing engine the low temperature of the exhaust steam, and the liability to air leakages and Already in this country a company has been loss of vacuum in long pipes, makes it impracticable organised to manufacture reflectors by the means to save any more of the heat than that mentioned, of silver mica leaves on the posterior face, and and the remainder is necessarily wasted in heating fastened together so as to obtain a large reflective the condensing water. In the non-condensing surface possessing the desired curves. They are engine there is on the average ten per cent. of the cheap, and easily repaired; but they meet with heat utilised by the use of a feed-water heater, in two great difficulties: the quick alteration of the addition to the ten per cent. transmuted into work, silvery surface caused by the hydrosulphurous consequently eighty per cent. of the original gases of coal with which locomotive reflectors amount of heat remains in the exhaust steam, and are always in contact, and the want of trans- is usually wasted in the atmosphere. If this large parency of the mica and its yellow colour. I quantity could be used for heating buildings withhave no doubt that by the adoption of the pla-out interfering with the performance of the entina these evils would have found their remedy, gine, there would be no doubt of the value of for, as it has been seen before, the reflecting surthe system-the heat in fact would cost nothing; face is on the anterior part of the glass. but it is evident that in order to cause this steam

A quite peculiar property of the platinised mirrors will no doubt be applied by architects. The platinised glasses forming mirrors are transparent when the light passes through them. A person placed in the rear of an office can see everything going on in the front office without himself being seen. I insist particularly on this property; it appears to me to give to the plati. nised glass quite a new application, which will increase its sale. This transparency is easily explained considering the small quantity of platina deposited on the glass, which quantity is not large enough to give opacity to the glass and prevent the luminous rays from passing through it. This transparency has received a very amusing application quite lately in Paris. Mirrors called mirrors a surprise, are sold, which, when a black paper at the back of the glass is removed, allows a photograph or any other image to be seen through the metallised surface appearing as

From the Scientific American.

to traverse through heating-pipes and coils it must have sufficient pressure in excess of that of the atmosphere to enable it to overcome the increased resistance. The additional pressure varies from two to five pounds and upwards per square inch, and acts as so much back pressure upon the piston, thereby reducing the power of the engine. The power lost must be supplied by increasing the mean pressure upon the driving side of the relative cost in fuel of supplying the heatingpiston, and the question becomes :-What is the pipes with steam direct from the boiler, as compared with that required for the extra power the building? necessary to circulate the exhaust steam through

The answer to this problem depends upon the particular circumstances of each case, and to make the subject generally understood, it is first necessary to investigate some of the known facts in regard to low-pressure steam-heating appara

tus.

Manufactories where steam-power is employed

in square inches, and the speed of piston in feet
per minute, and divide the product by 33,000.*

generally have a large number of windows for
the convenience of the workmen, and are often
more or less exposed to cold draughts from hoist- The next step is to ascertain the coal required
ways, staircases, and outer doors, and though the per horse-power per hour. This should be done,
temperature need not be so high as in dwelling- when practicable, by regular experiment. In
houses, it would be unsafe to allow less than one other cases, it may be assumed that engines
square foot of heating surface in the heating pipes working with a steam pressure of 50lb. and
and coils to every 100 cubic feet of space to under, with little expansion, will require 5 to
be heated. In order to form a safe estimate of 61b. of coal per horse-power per hour. With
the amount of fuel required when the steam is more expansion, 4 to 5lb. will be required; and
taken direct from the boiler, we may assume as the most improved form of expansive engines,
an extreme case that the difference between the working with steam at 80lb. pressure, will
external air and that of the room is to be 699; furnish a horse-power for 3lb. of coal per hour.
then, according to the experiments and formula By multiplying the horse-power due to the in-
of Tredgold, we find that it will require three creased back pressure by the coal required per
and one-eighth square feet of surface to eon-horse-power per hour, and the product by 2500,
dense a pound of steam per hour, and if one the result will be the least number of cubic feet
pound of coal evaporate eight pounds of water, of space which can be heated economically by the
it will supply steam to (8 x 3.1251) 25 square exhaust steam from that engine. The advantages
feet of heating surface and will heat (25 x 100=) under different circumstances may be ascertained
2500 cubic feet of space for one hour. This in the manner previously stated.
estimate will be correct for average circumstances,
but will not apply to all cases of low-pressure
steam-heating, especially where the rooms are
unusually exposed either to draughts of air, or
great extremes of temperature.

In heating a building by exhaust steam, parti-
cular attention should be given to the size and
arrangement of the pipes. A main exhaust pipe
should be run up through the building and out
of the roof in the usual manner. This pipe should
In estimating the greatest amount of space be larger than is ordinarily employed, so as to
that can be heated by the exhaust steam of an form a kind of expansion chamber to equalise
engine, it should be borne in mind that the the exhaust pressure. From the vertical exhaust
quantity of steam discharged necessarily varies pipe the heating pipes may be led out for each
with the work being done, and as the temperature floor of the building. A common plan is to put
of the building requires to be constant, we can a good-sized cast-iron pipe under the work-
only utilise the quantity of heat escaping when benches along the sides of the rooms. Such pipes
the engine is lightly loaded. For instance, an should be connected by bolted flanges, and ample
engine of 80-horse power may be loaded occa- provision made for expansion and contraction.
sionally to only 40-horse power for half an hour Heating coils of the ordinary construction may
or more at a time. If each horse power require also be used, care being taken to make the lead-
on the average 3lb. of coal per hour, 40-horse ing pipes with as few bends as possible and of
power will require 120lb. As has been before sufficient size. To obtain the proper size of pipe
mentioned, the exhaust steam from an engine for a given case, the following formula may be
contains 8-10ths of the heat received from the used, which is founded on some experiments made
fuel, so in the present case the maximum heating by the writer for the United States Government,
effect is equal to 8-10th of 120lb., or 961b. of coal viz.: a W÷ 46 (p + 3) in which a = area of
per hour; and as each pound of coal will beat steam-pipe in square inches, W the weight of
2500 cubic feet of space, 95lb. will heat 240,000 steam in pounds delivered per hour, and p the
cubic feet, equal to the capacity of a building difference in pressure. Assuming as an extreme
100ft. long, 60ft. wide, and 40ft. high. The extra that 2-4 square feet of surface (3) will condense
power required to overcome the back pressure in one pound of exhaust steam per hour, then, when
that sized engine could not well exceed 10-horse the difference in pressure equals one pound, a = s
power, which would cost 30lb. of coal per hour; 440. The following is then a safe rule :-
direct from the boiler, the saving is (96-30)
and as 961b. would be required were steam taken
661b. per hour, or 68 per cent. If the quantity of
space heated be less than that mentioned, the
percentage of saving will be less; for instance,
to heat 150,000ft. of space in the ordinary way
would require 60lb. of coal per hour; but with
the exhaust steam in the above instance the cost
will still be 30lb., so the saving will be 50 per
cent. In warm days in winter, when less heat is
required in the buildings, the same power will be
taken from the engine to supply the less quantity
of heat, so that the percentage of saving will be
less. There would be some saving, however,
whenever it required more than 301b. of coal to the condensed water will move in the same direc-
The pipes should be slightly inclined, so that
In case each horse power re- tion as the steam. The ends of the various heat-
quired more coal per hour than that stated, the ing pipes and coils should be connected with a
advantages of exhaust heating would be corre-
spondingly diminished, unless the size of the water-pipe terminating near the boiler in an in-
engine and amount of power necessary to distri-verted siphon, the shorter leg of which should be
bute the steam were also less. In some instances, under ground if necessary. This siphon should
about seven feet long. The bend may extend
probably, the system is productive of loss as com- deliver the condensed water into a tank where it
pared with the use of live steam, so the true plan
is to make accurate calculations in each case.
can be returned to the boiler. An air-cock should
The following directions may therefore assist
many readers-

heat the rooms.

REVIEWS.

Continental Farming and Peasantry. By JAS.
HOWARD, M.P. London: W. Ridgway, 169,
Piccadilly.

HE comparison of results obtained from two question. Mr. Howard's book in this manner contributes to settle the question of large or small farming. Travelling himself through the farming districts of France and Belgium, where small holdings prevail, he shows not only that the produce does not equal that of English farming, but that the holders are worse off; do more work for less money with less results than English farm labourers, although possessed of the advantages of a more favourable climate. Mr. Howard would permit small holdings on large estates as rewards held out by the owner (as in the case of Lord Lichfield) to deserving and thrifty workmen in later life. He would not, however, encourage the sub-division of holdings into smaller lots. One fact which he calls attention to is worth notice, namely, that in Belgium, where the small farm system is said to obtain such favour, the Trades' Union Congress, which met some time back at Brussels, condemned the system of "petite culture," and resolved that when communism in land was gained it would be necessary to farm on a large scale in order to take advantage of machinery, &c., in the production of food.

Every Man His Own Lawyer. By A BARRISTER. London Lockwood and Co., Stationers'-hallcourt, E.C.

THE eighth edition of this useful book needs little more from us than mention. For 68. 8d. our readers can obtain a trusty adviser in every point of law, whose first charge is his only one, and who will not advise with a view to litigation and long bills, as lawyers in the flesh too often do.

MATHEMATICS,

BY C. H. W. BIGGS, (Continued from page 628, Vol. X.) RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES IN FRACTIONS.

the result is the proper area of the pipe in square
Divide the heating surface in square feet by 400, § 32. The following exercises the rules already given.t's
inches. The following table gives the amount of
surface which will be supplied with steam through
pipes of the sizes mentioned:-

Diameter of Pipe.
inch

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40 square feet
75

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170

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300

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be placed in the water-pipe to allow the air to
escape in starting.

THE LUMINOSITY OF PHOSPHORUS.-Herr

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To ascertain whether heating by exhaust steam haust steam can be shut off from each room sepaArrangements should be made so that the exis economical where it has already been applied, rately by a valve, and in some instances it may be the first step is to measure the extra back pres-desirable to admit live steam into portions of the sure on the piston, which can be done by indicating the engine when the steam is escaping pipes when the engine is not in motion.-Amerifreely into the atmosphere, and when the can Artisan. exhaust is throttled for heating purposes, and comparing the back pressures shown by the diagrams. If this be not convenient, W. Muller, of Perleberg, gives an explanation of the 4 one leg of an inverted glass siphon containing well-known luminosity exhibited by phosphorus in mercury may be connected to some enlarge-nation with oxygen, but does not take place in pure the dark. It depends on slow combustion or combiment of the exhaust-pipe, and the mean difference oxygen, except when it is diluted by other gases, as is in level noted in the two cases the same as before. the case in the atmosphere. In other atmospheres, as One pressure corresponds to about 2 (2037) hydrogen or nitrogen, the phenomenon does not occur. inches of mercury. A longer syphon filled with water may be used with some inconveniences. In such case, one pound pressure corresponds to a column of water 2-3 feet high and 60° temperature, or 2-4 feet high at temperature of 205°.

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