serve the sentiment. The chorus is intended to express some emphatic event, to celebrate some distinguished hero, or to praise some beneficent god. It is properly the voice of triumph and exultation. The harmony should therefore be as full and expressive as possible. But for the rules of such compositions, one must refer the reader to such theoretical and practical musicians as have been most successful in describing and cultivating dramatic music. What remains for us is to subjoin a list of those who have been most remarkable for their accuracy in the theory, or for their excellence in the practice, of music. Of John de Muris we have already spoken, who lived in the year 1330, and to whom, by mistake, has been attributed the invention of those characters by which, in modern times, the value of notes, and their relative proportions one to another, have been ascertained. But this expedient for making visible the different durations of notes as constituent of one rhythmus or particular movement, we have found to be first introduced by one Franco, who lived prior to John de Muris. Lasus was the first who wrote on music; but his work is lost, as well as several other books of the Greeks and Romans upon the same subject. Aristoxenus, the disciple of Aristotle, and leader of a sect in music, is the most ancient author who remains to us upon this science. After him came Euclid of Alexandria. Aristidis Quintilianus wrote after Cicero. Alyphus afterwards succeeded; then Guadentius, Nicomachus, and Bacchius. Marcus Meibomius has favoured us with a beautiful edition of these seven Greek authors, with a Latin translation and notes. Plutarch, as has already been said, wrote a dialogue upon music. Ptolemy, a celebrated mathematician, wrote in Greek a treatise intitled The Principles of Harmony, about the time of the emperor Antoninus. This author endeavoured to preserve a medium between the Pythagoreans and the Aristoxenians. A long time afterwards, Manuel Pyrennius wrote likewise upon the same subject. Among the Latins, Boëtius wrote in the times of Theodoric; and not distant from the same period Martianus, Cassiodorus, and St. Augustine. The number of the moderns is almost indefinite. The most distinguished are, Zarlino, Salinas, Valgulio, Galileo, Doni, Kircher, Mersenne, Parran, Perault, Wallis, Descartes, Holden, Mengoli, Malcolm, Baretti, Vallotti, Marcus Meibomius, Christopher Simpson; Tartini, whose book is full of deep researches and of genius, but tedious from its prodigious length, and perplexed with obscurity; and M. Rameau, whose writings have had this singular good luck, to have produced a great fortune without being read almost by any one. Besides, the world may now be spared the pains of perusing them, since M. D'Alembert has taken the trouble of explaining to the public the system of the fundamental bass, the only useful and intelligible discovery which we find in Rameau's writings. To these we may add Rousseau and Dr. Smith, author of a learned and mathematical treatise, intitled, Harmonics, or The Philosophy of Musical Sounds; Mr. Stillingfleet, author of the Principles and the Power of Harmony, or An Explication of Tartini's System; Dr. Pepusch, and his noble pupil the lord VOL. VIII. Abercorn; Mr. Avison, late organist at Newcas tle, who wrote a treatise on Musical Expression with the politeness and elegance of a gentleman, the depth and precision of a scholar, the spirit' and energy of a genius. Among the authors al. ready mentioned, it would be unpardonable to omit the names of sir John Hawkins and Dr. Burney, each of whom has favoured the world with a history of music. There are also valuable treatises by Gunn, Kollman, Maxwell, Shield, and Dr. Calcott. An abridgement of the Musical Grammar of the last-mentioned ingenious author is attempted below and we trust it will be found more worthy the attention of our readers than any thing else we could present to them on this subject. We still, however, beg to refer to the original work, for much curious and valuable matter, which we should not be justified in introducing here. ELEMENTS OF MUSIC.. PART I THE NOTATION OF MUSIC. Five lines drawn over each other, form a staff, or support for the notes of music. On these lines, and in the spaces between them, the heads of the notes are placed. The lines and spaces of the staff are counted upwards, from the lowest to the highest. Every line, or space, is called a degree: thus the staff includes nine degrees, viz, five lines, and four spaces. The notes of music consist generally of two parts, a head and a stem. The head is either open or close (that is, white and must always be placed on a line, or black); or in a space. The stem may turn up or down, without making any difference in the music. Chap. II-Of the Clef. In old French music, the G clef is placed on the The notes of music are named from the first first line, and called the high treble. seven letters of the alphabet, The sounds of music are distinguished by their difference in respect of pitch, and divided into high and low: the high sounds are placed in a staff with the G clef, and called treble; the low sounds are placed in a staff with the F clef, and called base. The upper sounds of the base, and the lower ones of treble, are also called tenor, and sometimes placed in a staff with the C clef. These three clefs are five degrees distant from each other; the C or tenor clef, being the note where the base ends and the treble begins. The G or treble clef, is five degrees above; and the F or base, is five degrees below, both inclusive. 蛋 f g a b c d e f All the degrees of the staff depend upon the clef; and consequently take their names from that line on which the clef is placed. It must always be remembered, that these clefs are representatives of the letters, fc and g. The G clef must turn on the second line of the staff; all the notes on that line are called g; the other degrees take their names from that, as the clef line. The F clef must be placed on the fourth line of the staff, so that the two dots are in the third and fourth spaces: all the notes on that line are called f; the other degrees take their names from that, as the clef line. Chap. III-Of the Notes. Of notes in general.-The notes of music represent sounds, with their difference of pitch, and their duration in time. These two qualities are called the tune and time of notes. When to any series of the seven letters the eighth is added, the whole number is termed an octave; and the word is frequently used to express the two extreme notes of the series, the first and the eighth.. and ends with C, ascending or descending, is most That series of the seven letters which begins satisfactory to the ear. cdefgab On keyed instruments, these notes are per formed by striking the long keys, whose names are known by their situation with respect to the short keys, which are generally black: The black keys are placed in alternate divisions of two and three, throughout the key-board; and, as the long key between the two short ones is always D, the other six letters may be readily found from that; E being the next long key towards the right hand; C the next towards the left, &c. &c. The C nearest the middle of the instrument is the tenor clef note; the next G towards the right, is the treble clef note; and the nearest F towards the left, is the base clef note. To distinguish the different notes of the same letter from each other, the Germans have adopted a literal notation, called their tablature, which, from its ingenuity and utility, deserves to be more universally known than it is at present. both the divisions of short keys in the key-board The lowest series of seven notes, which includes (beginning with the two), is called by the Germans the great octave, being expressed by capital letters; thus, CDEFGAB The next series of seven notes is called the small When the C clef is placed so that the two cross octave, expressed with small letters; thus, strokes enclose the middle line, it is called the counter tenor, or viola clef. The counter tenor clef is used for the high voices of men in vocal music, and for the viola or tenor violin in instrumental pieces. When the C clef is placed so that the two cross strokes enclose the fourth line, it is called the tenor clef. The tenor clef is used for the middle voices of men, and for the violoncello or base violin, in instrumental music, when the passage ascends above the base staff. When the C clef is placed so that the two cross strokes enclose the lowest line, it is called the soprano, or canto clef. The soprano clef is used for the voices of females and children. In Italy and Germany, no other clef is in general use for the harpsichord ; the G clef being reserved for the violin, flute, &c. In old vocal music, the C clef is placed on the second line, and called the mezzo soprano. In old church music, the F clef is placed on the third line, and called the baritono. cdefgab The next series commences with the C clef note, including the G clef; and being expressed by a small stroke over each letter, is called the oncemarked octave. cdefgab Б The last series in general use is called the twicemarked octave. c d e f g a The few notes below the great octave are marked: with double capitals, and called contratones, Those above the treble form another series, called the thrice marked octave. Any musical example, in which all the notes are of equal length, may be expressed by this tablature, without the assistance of the staff or of the clef. According to this notation we may observe, The F clef note is the small f. The C clef note is the once marked č. the hexachord. The Italians, for the sake of a softer pronunciation, have changed the ut into do. do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do. The general scale of notes was formerly called the gammut, from the Greek letter gamma, This series of sounds, which is performed on the organ, &c. with the long keys, is called the natural scale, to distinguish it from that which employs the short keys intermixed with the others, called the chromatic, or artificial. In the vocal scale of the solfeggio, the place of the semitone is ascertained by the syllables mi fa and si do; between all the others is the distance of a tone. As the whole doctrine of melody, or the tune of notes, must depend on a right conception of the two semitones, and their places in the scale, great attention should be paid to this part of the subject by every musical student. Of the time of notes.-The duration of a note, with respect to time, is known by its particular form. and the distinction between notes in this respect is shown by making them white or black, and by the stem and the hook. The three principal notes are, the minim, the crotchet, and the quaver. The minim is a white note with a stem, made thus, placed on the lowest line of the base staff, or great and is as long as two crotchets, or four G of the German tablature. Of the tune of notes.-The tune of notes depends upon their relation to each other, and upon the distances between them. The intervals between the degrees of the scale are unequal; and, as some are nearly twice the distance of others, the words tone, and semitone, are employed to express them." Those notes which on the key-board are not separated by a short key, are said to be distant from each other one semitone; those which have a short key inserted between them, are distant two semitones, or one tone. Thus, the distances between BC and between EF, are semitones; and those between CD, DE, FG, GA, and AB, are tones; therefore, every series of the eight regular sounds, or of the octave, contains five tones and two semitones. The greatest care must be taken not to misunderstand the words note and tone. A note is the sound which is heard, or the mark which represents it on the staff; but a tone is the distance between two notes, which are called by the names of two adjoining letters, and separated by one single key of the instrument. Thus, the distance from A to B is a tone; and therefore A is a tone lower than B, and B a tone higher than A. The same observation must be applied to the semitones, which are sometimes called, though improperly, half notes. The distance from B to Cis a semitone; therefore B is a semitone lower than C, and C is a semitone higher than B. By comparing the sounds Č D E F with the following sounds G A B C, we find that the distances of both these fourths consist exactly of two tones and a semitone; therefore any tune formed by one, will be exactly similar to that of the other. These two fourths, taken in succession, form a scale, of which the chief sound being C, is from thence called the key note. The descending series of this scale corresponds with the common tune of eight bells. The effect of these notes to the ear depends upon the position of the semitones. This may be easily perceived by playing eight notes, from d, or e, or any part of the scale, which will not produce the same melody. But if the same letters, in any octave higher or lower, are taken, the same tune will be heard, quavers. The crotchet is a black note with a stem, made thus, and is as long as two quavers. The quaver is a black note with a stem and may be divided into semiquavers, or The proportions of these three principal notes to each other are therefore as under, One Two Four When the quaver is divided into smaller por- being one quarter the length of the In slow music, especially that in the church style, two longer notes are used; the semibreve and the breve. The semibreve is a round white note, ; and is as long as two minims, or four The breve is a square white note, and is as long as two semibreves, four minims, or eight crotchets. Those notes which are made with hooks may be grouped together by two, three, or four, &c. Thus: Detached. Detached. Quavers. Grouped. Semiquavers. Grouped. breve. This method is not only convenient in writing, called half time, being the division of the semibut assists the eye in ascertaining the proportion of the notes, and is of particular use in vocal music, to distinguish the notes which are to be sung to each syllable. Every musical piece is divided into equal portions of time, called measures. These are ascertained by straight lines, called bars, drawn down the staff. All the notes, therefore, contained between two bars, constitute one measure. The use of bars is not to be traced higher than the time when the English translation of Adrian le Roy's book on the tablature was published, viz. the year 1574; and it was some time after that before the use of bars became general. To come nearer to the point, Barnard's cathedral music, printed in 1641, is without bars; but bars are to be found throughout the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry Lawes published in 1653; from whence it may be conjectured that we owe to Lawes this improvement in music. Every measure must contain a certain number of notes, according to the time marked at the Beginning of the movement. Thus in common time, each measure includes a semibreve, or its value in minims, crotchets, or quavers, intermixed as the melody requires. The exact length of the measure is known by regularly dividing the time into equal portions, whether the notes themselves are long or short; as every measure must be precisely equal in time, during the continuance of the movement. There are two chief species of time, common or equal-and triple or unequal time. In the first, we count two, four, or eight in every measure; in the last we count three, or six. I. Common or equal time, contains one semibreve, two minims, four crotchets, eight quavers, or their value, in every measure. This time is known by a semicircle placed at the beginning of the staff, after the clef, thus: (Handel: "See the conquering"). 要 (German Hymn, Pleyel). The most usual measures expressed by figures placed at the beginning of the staff, are the fol lowing: of these figures, the upper one shews how many 3 Three 56 Six 8 Quavers S9 Niue 16 Semiquavers When it is necessary to lengthen a note by half its value, a dot is placed after it. Thus, a dotted minim is as long as a minim and a crotchet, or as three crotchets. A dotted crotchet is as long as a crotchet and a quaver, or as three quavers. II. Triple, or unequal time.-Of this time there 2. Three crotchets, in a measure. 1. One dotted semibreve, or three minims, in every measure; thus, (Handel's Italian songs, No. 64, "Verdi pratiAlcina"). 2. One dotted minim, or three crotchets, in every measure. (H. S. I. No. 66: "Fell rage-Saul"). 3. One dotted crotchet, or three quavers, in every measure. (H. S. II. 128: "No, let the guilty trembleSaul"). IV. Compound triple time is formed by dividing the meaures of simple triple into nine parts, and by dotting the measure note of the original time. Of this there are three species: 1. Three minims divided into nine crotchets. 2. Three crotchets divided into nine quavers. 3. Three quavers divided into nine semiquavers. By a mere change of notation, the advantage is gained of presenting the simple measures clear to the eye, without the incumbrance of a dot to each minim. (2.) Nine quavers, or three crotchet time, divided into triplets. (H. S. IV. No. 319: "Consider, fond shepherdAcis and Galatea”). The commencement of this song, and the other parts, are in simple triple; thus, In slow common time the accents are more fre quent; but they are found in the same proportion on the first, third, fifth, and seventh quavers, which are the strong parts, while the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth, are the weak parts. In three crotchet time, when divided into quavers, the first, third, and fifth quavers are strong; the second, fourth, and sixth, weak. In six quaver time, the first and fourth quavers are strong; the others weak. From the nature of accent arises the necessity of beginning some movements with only part of a measure; thus, (1.) With a single weak part. (H. S. III. No. 163: "The smiling dawn-Jephtha”), 排排 W. S. (2.) With a half measure. (3) Nine semiquavers, or three quaver time, (H. S. III. No. 162: "Welcome as the cheerful divided into triplets. From these two species of compound time (common and triple,, arise various kinds of mixt measures, which are in some parts equally, and in others unequally divided. The triplets of common time, which are found in the place of each crotchet of the measure, have sometimes the figure 3 placed over them; but are generally known bybeing grouped together, and then form one of the single parts of the whole measure. The same use of the triplet occurs in triple time when the measure note is divided occasionally into three parts, instead of two. There is also a species of time, call quintuple, which contains five crotchets in a bar; but it is very seldom used. Tartini considered this quintuple proportion as unfit for melody, and impossible to be executed. Time has shewn, that neither of these judgments were well founded. Of the accent of notes.-The bars of music are not only useful for dividing the movement into equal measures, but also for shewing the notes upon which the accent is to be laid. The measures of common time are divided into four parts; of these, the first and third are accented; the second and fourth unaccented. In the course of this treatise the accented will be termed day-Jephtha"). When the composer intends that the weak parts of the measure should be made of more importance than the strong parts, such deviation from the regular accent will be termed emphasis. The Italian words, rinforzando, sforzato, or their contractions, rinf. rf. sfors. sf. are often used to mark the emphasis, and sometimes are placed over accented notes. As every species of measure may be subdivided by accents, according to the degree of quickness in which it is performed; so also the weak parts of every measure may be occasionally made emphatic at the pleasure of the composer. To this species of effect may be referred all syncopated or driving notes, which begin on the weak, and end on the strong part of the measure. Chap. IV. Of the Rests. When, in the course of a movement, silence is required for one or more parts of a measure, that silence is denoted by a rest, or rests, which are counted exactly in the same time as their corresponding notes would be, if performed. The rests of the white notes are made in the middle of the staff; thus, Rest of the breve. Semibreve. Minim, |
