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This is a most important subject, not only as being the earliest study and pursuit of man, in the patriarchal ages, but as affording to every country, in its collective state, its best riches, health and happiness, whether physical, moral, or political.

As soon as mankind form themselves into settled society, necessity compels them to stimulate the fertility of the earth by some kind of culture; and this, whether they derive their food from vegetables alone, or from animal nutriment in conjunction with vegetables. Hence husbandry becomes the basis of civilized life, nor are its effects less delightful than politically beneficial. Every eye is charmed with the smiling verdure of a well-cultivated field: every heart is gladdened at the prospect of a luxuriant harvest: the mind partakes of the general rapture of valleys crowned with herds, and the little hills with flocks, and readily enters into the chorus when they all shout and sing aloud for joy. Fortitude and industry, perseverance and patience, are required to undertake and execute the important labours of the field. The mind is perpetually led to look up for the co-operation of Heaven: admiration is excited by the world of wonders continually displayed in the phenomena of vegetation; and gratitude for the favours of that Power and goodness by which they are produced. Hence the life of the agriculturist is adapted to generate and cherish the fairest of the human virtues.

But besides these virtues, agriculture is also calculated to exercise and exalt the talents of man. To know the nature and qualities of vege table productions; to distinguish their peculiar habits; to understand what applications are proper, both to promote the growth of the useful, and discourage the noxious; to determine the seasons, soils, and circumstances, suitable for all such applications; to be well informed in the natural history of the animal creation, so as to foster the animals useful to man, and to guard against the depredations of such as injure culti vated vegetables, are studies sufficient to give full scope to the intellectual powers: yet all these are requisite to form an accomplished husbandman.

An employment of such importance to society, and so honourable to the individual, it might have been presumed would have been generally embraced by all who aspire at distinction or honour; and in ancient times this was probably the case; for agriculture was then the occupation of rulers and legislators. But from an unhappy depravity, mankind, too soon, began to form false notions of honour: it was deemed more glorious to destroy than to comfort and preBerve; to acquire possessions by brutal force, than by virtuous industry; and thus the arts, most beneficial to society, fell into contempt. The Spartans, those Vandals of ancient Greece, glorying only in warlike achievement, commmitted the cultivation of their lands to their enslaved Helots. The Romans, too, who in vir tuous times carefully cultivated their limited jugera, as soon as their manners were corrupted by the spoils of the surrounding nations they had subdued, abandoned the management of their native fields to slaves and parasites. The bar barous hordes that overran Europe in later times, followed the same example. Destitute of knowledge, and impatient of instruction, they

disdained to apply to the study of arts in which they were not fitted to excel. Leaving the cultivation of the soil to villains, whose minds were debased by slavery and oppression, they engaged solely in martial feats, or the chase, in the short intervals of their sanguinary quarrels. A rude people, averse to rational investigations, entered into civil transactions with the same dispositions. Stratagem and cunning became preferred to rectitude, and successful artifice best ensured applause. Hence prowess in the martial field, and superior address in civil intrigues, became the direct and only way to renown. offices which give play to the violent and corrupt passions, obtain the ascendancy over these in which strict virtue and general talents only are required, public opinion is perverted, and mischievous prejudices become prevalent.

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From this inverted order of things, agriculture, the most innocent and important art to society, became for many ages held in far too low an estimation. Happily, however, the rays of truth have at length pierced the gross mists of prejudice and error; husbandry is no longer despised, and the cultivation of our native land is growing into a fashionable and philosophical pursuit.

Perhaps in our own country agriculture has,

for some years, been more respectfully treated than in any other, unless we were to cross the Indian ocean, and to examine the attention which has almost immemorably been paid to it in China. One of the earliest promoters of this patriarchal study, and whose name will, we trust, be handed down with honour to the remotest antiquity, was the discerning Fitzherbert, a judge of the common pleas, who flourished near the beginning of the sixteenth century; who employed his pen most usefully, and in a most popular manner, upon agricultural subjects; and who, in conse quence, excited a general taste, and emulation in agricultural pursuits. The example was shortly afterwards followed, almost, if not altogether, with equal success, by Sir Hugh Platt, who entered, with much scientific research, into the nature and constituent principles of different soils, and the means of improving them by different manures and composts. To him succeeded the unfortunate Gabriel Plattes, Bligh, Hartlib, Evelyn, and John Tull.

After the restoration of peace, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the continent at large gave evident marks of attention to the same important subject. In France, more especially, we have many embryo efforts towards cultivating it upon just and rational principles. Different societies and academies were established in different parts of the kingdom, and prize questions proposed, in order to extend and improve the knowledge of husbandry; while the practical observations contained in the writings of the marquis de Tourbilly, tended probably in a still greater degree than all the rest, more to forward the general design.

In Switzerland the same methods were pursued; nor were exertions wanting to introduce approved systems of European husbandry into Russia while Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and the different states of Italy, though extremely enfeebled by luxury, gave proofs of not being wholly inattentive to the agricultural art. Their progress has not, however, been rapid, or their improvements numerous,

But, notwithstanding these different sources from which agriculture has been promoted, the art is still far from having attained that degree of perfection which might have been expected from the great length of time that it has been cultivated; the reason of which would seem to be, that it has been practised without much regard to scientific principles, and consequently has derived few advantages from modern improvements in natural philosophy or chemistry. Vague and fortuitous experience has, till of late, contributed more to the present flourishing state of the art than any general principles deduced from the knowledge which we have lately acquired, either of the process of vegetation, or of the nature of soils. The skill thus fortuitously acquired, must, however, necessarily be partial, and mostly local; even the very terms employed, by those who most eminently possess it, are generally of a vague and uncertain signification. Thus, clay is frequently mistaken for marl, marl for chalk, and the first again for loam. The philosophical inquiries which have been made on this important subject, have therefore not yet been sufficiently attended to by the practical farmer. Much useful information may, however, be derived from the researches of Du Hamel, and still more from the well-directed experiments of Mr. Tillet. The labours of the illustrious Bergman also deserve considerable attention. Black and Priestley, by their ingenious experiments, have likewise thrown new light on many parts of the subject: and the chemical theory of Lavoisier has led to the explanation of other circumstances which before seemed inexplicable. Valuable discoveries have also been made by Senebier and Ingenhoutz; and still fuller information to be conveyed by the inquiries of Hassenfraz.

In descending to the present day, we may, indeed, triumph in beholding philosophy and practice, rank and opulence, each equally contributing to bestow honour on the plough and the sheep-fold: the names of Kirwan, Ducy, and Sir Joseph Banks, among physiologists: of Kaims, Hunter, Anderson, Sinclair, and Young, among practical cultivators; of Coke, the duke of Norfolk, and the late as well as the present duke of Bedford, as well as an innumerable list of other noblemen and large landed proprietors, are sufficient to establish most completely the truth of this observation: while, to close the whole, his present majesty, in the purest spirit of patriotism, has devoted no small portion of his leisure from more se. rious concerns, to the same pleasant and recreating pursuit; and both by practice and patronage has taken every opportunity of promoting its valuable in

terests.

are

The greater number of treatises on husbandry rendered complex, by their multiplicity of divisions and subdivisions, and by their con. necting with it an introductory discussion of the philosophy or physiology of plants. The latter we shall entirely transfer to the article PHYSIOLOGY, to which the cultivator may turn at his leisure; and the former we shall reduce to three leading parts, under which we shall examine, progressively, the separate subjects that belong to them. These parts are AGRICULTURE, or the preparation and management of the Soil: CROPPING, or the growth and management of the Vegetable Products: and BREEDING, or the growth and management of Live Stock.

PART I. AGRICULTURE,

Or the Preparation and Management of Soils. Soils are of various kinds and properties, and hence a due attention to their nature and composition is a matter of the greatest importance, as without it, we can insure no increase, or at least none adequate to our labour.

Every soil, however, (at least the exceptions are too few to require notice,) is capable of producing plants of some kind or other; yet without cultivation it seldom yields more than a boundless profusion of weeds, plants of no use, or whose uses are unknown: or forests of massy timber, that require infinitely more labour to be cleared away, than the closest collection of the most obstinate and intractable weeds whatsoever. To know the nature of the soil which we are about to cultivate, it is first necessary, therefore, to rid it from these natural incumbrances: we shall then be able to examine its constituent principles, and to add to its productive power. This part of our subject, therefore, will demand a division into the following chapters:

1. Clearing the ground-plot.

2. The nature of the soil to be cultivated. 3. Improvement of the soil by composition. 4. Improvement of the soil by chemical and me. chanical processes.

5. Agricultural powers and implements.

1. Of clearing the ground-plot.-All uncultivated land, whether high or low, dry or morassy, will be found, in a very considerable degree, choked up with unprofitable weeds or impenetrable woods. Our own country, indeed, and especially the more southern portion of it, has been so long appropriated to agricultural purposes, that it is not very often the farmer is now called upon to remove the incumbrance of vast masses of dark impenetrable forests. Yet the temporary scarcities of grain we have lately felt, in consequence of the war, has rendered it a matter of absolute necessity that some portion of the enormous extent of waste land that disgraces our agricultural industry, should be put into a train of cultivation; and hence the inclosure of barren commons, and the reclaiming of bogs and marshes, have, for the last six or seven years, become a fashionable, as they will in the end be found a very profitable, pursuit.

Our woodlands have already been cleared too effectually, and instead of giving instructions how to extend their demolition, we shall rather, as we proceed, point out the best means of promoting their encouragement and spread. In most new colonizations, however, this is an enormous incumbrance, and requires a long and patient series of herculean labour for its remo. val while to add to the difficulty, the remote and self-banished settler, is woefully deficient in the means of assistance. It is but the mere outline, therefore, of the British territory in New South Wales that has, to this hour, been brought into a state of cultivation: many of the settlers give up their work in despair; and dispose, for a mere trifle, of the land that has been granted to them, and of which they have cleared but a few acres; while even the most patient and persevering, incapable from poverty, of purchasing the labour of other hands, can only appropriate a small part of the toil of their own

first;

families, during the more leisurely seasons of There is no great difficulty in removing the the year to an extension of their boundary. but the two latter kinds are often productive of very great trouble, and that for many years successively. We shall treat shortly of both sorts.

In many parts of North America this process is conducted upon a bolder and a much better plan; for it is no uncommon thing, whether in the back settlements of Canada, or the United States, for hordes of clearers to travel from distriet to district, and undertake to free, at a certain price per acre, any quantity of land against a given time. It is only the more opulent or speculative of the Americans, however, who can thus undertake to clear the ground by wholesale. And hence the general aspect of the territory of the United States may be thus not unfairly represented: an almost uninterrupted forest; five great lakes on the north on the west, extensive savannahs; in the centre, a chain of mountains, their ridges running in a direction parallel to the sea-coast, the distance of which is from fifty to a hundred and thirty miles, and sending off to the east and west rivers of longer course, of greater width, and pouring into the sea larger bodies of water than ours in Europe; most of these rivers having cascades or fails, from twenty to a hundred and fifty feet in beight, mouths spacious as gulphs; and on the southern coasts marshes extending about two hundred and fifty miles in length; on the north, ow remaining four or five months of the year: on a coast of three hundred leagues' extent, ten or twelve cities, all built of brick, or of wood painted of different colours; round these cities, farm-houses, built of trunks of trees, which they call log-houses, in the centre of a few fields of wheat, tobacco, or Indian-corn; these fields, separated by a kind of fence made with branches of trees instead of hedges, for the most part full of stumps of trees half-burnt, or stripped of their bark and standing; while both houses and fields are inchased, as it were, in masses of forests, in which they are swallowed up, and diminished both in number and extent the further you advance into the woods; til at length, from the summits of the hills, you perceive only here and there a few little brown or yellow squares on a ground of green. Add to this a fickle or variable sky, an atmosphere alternately very moist and very dry, very misty and very clear, very hot and very cold, and a temperature so changeable, that in the same day you will have spring, summer, autumn and winter, Norwegian frost and an African sun; the perpetual change depending, in a very great degree, upon the uncultivated state of the soil, the perpetual evaporation which is so largely ascending from its surface, and the sudden chills to which its partial openings are continually giving rise. Here, if any where, we have the most ample proof of the great benefits resulting from a culti vation of the soil: in proportion as the land be comes cleansed, and the plough and the furrow perform their offices, intermitting fevers vanish, the countenance re-assumes the glow of health, the animal spirits flow with increased elasticity, the country becomes populous, and the state enriched.

In our own country, however, it is rather of weeds than of wood that new ground requires to be cleared: these weeds are sometimes shrubs, or sub-shrubs, as the whin, briar, bramble, and furze; but more generally herbs, either annual or perennial, soine propagated by seeds, and others chiefly by roots, and hence requiring a dikerent process for their destruction.

Of destroying weeds propagated by seeds.-These differ very considerably in their nature. The seeds of some will putrefy in a few years, if they lie moist in the earth, and are prevented from vegetating. But the seeds of others will lie many years in the same situation, without having their vegetative power destroyed, and will be found twenty years afterwards, in as great plenty as ever. The first sort may be destroyed by turning the land infested with them, from tillage into grass, and allowing it to remain in that situation for a few years; and both sorts by bringing the seeds to vegetate, and then tearing up the young plants. By frequently stirring and turning over the land, both these points will be accomplished. For every time the land is stirred and turned over, some seeds that before lay deep, are brought near the surface; the earth about them is rendered free and open, and the air which is necessary to vegetation, freely admitted: independently of which the plants that have appeared are hereby torn up and destroyed. Of the truth of this every farmer that practises summer-fallowing must be fully convinced. But in the performance of the operations by which the land is stirred and turned over, to promote the vegetation of the small seeds, great care should be taken to preserve the sap or moisture as much as possible. This will be done, if, in stirring the land, the surface be made smooth and plain: for when the surface is rough and uneven, the drought has easy access; but, when smooth and plain, the winds have less influence, and the sap is better preserved.

The vegetation of seeds in land is also promoted by the application of dung and some other manures. If therefore dung be laid upon land infested with weeds, and the land carefully stirred and turned over several times, all the seeds in it, by degrees, will be brought to vegctate, and the weeds may thus be destroyed. But this practice, though proper for destroying weeds, may, in some cases, destroy some of the virtues of the dung, before it is applied to promote the vegetation of the useful plants which are to be cultivated. Hence, though it may be improper to follow this method when seed cannot be sown for a considerable time after the dung is laid on, as is the case sometimes when summer barley is sown on fallow, yet it may answer very well when seed is to be sown soon after, as is the case when wheat is sown.

Manures however can only be employed as destroyers of weeds, in so far as they tend to promote the vegetation of the seeds.

It is necessary to observe here, that the seeds of some weeds, particularly the different species of thistle, are carried to a considerable distance by the wind; and wherever any earth is thrown up in such a manner as to entangle them, as at the root of a hedge, or side of a ditch, they appear in great abundance. Many farmers allow them to grow there undisturbed; the consequence of which is, that their seeds are carried into the adjacent fields, and great damage done, which might have been prevented by cutting them down before their seeds were ripened. This is a circumstance which ought to

be more attended to. The best and most cer

täin method of destroying thistles On

grass

lands, is to let them alone till they are in full bloom, and then to mow them with a scythe; for, if cut while young, they produce fresh shoots from the sides of each plant.

Of destroying weeds propagated by the root.Some of these infest land that is in tillage, and others land that is in grass. The first sort have such a tender blade, and such tender roots, that they cannot pierce a hard soil; but increase very fast, where the soil is free and open; while the second sort have the blade and roots SO strong, that there is scarcely any soil SO hard and stiff as to prevent them from making their way through it; though they are of such a nature as to be easily torn up when the land is free and open, and do not easily strike root again when thus eradicated.

With respect to the first sort, as they chiefly infest land in tillage, they may be destroyed by turning the land from tillage into grass, and allowing it to remain for some years in that situation. This is confirmed by experience. Land overrun with quick grass, and other rootweeds of the same kind, is frequently laid down in grass, and allowed to continue for some years without being ploughed. This land, when broke up again, if allowed to lie in grass for some years, is found to be clean, and the roots of the weeds destroyed. The number of years necessary for destroying the roots, depends upon the nature of the soil. If the soil be naturally hard and stiff, it is the sooner brought to such a situation as to prevent the roots and blades of the weeds from piercing it. But, if it be naturally soft and spongy, it takes a longer time before it is brought to that situation. For while the blade or roots of the weed can pierce the soil, their vegetation is not prevented. In some soils it is six or seven years before the roots of the quick grass are destroyed. The number of years found requisite for destroying these root-weeds, has, no doubt, been partly the cause of establishing the practice commonly followed. Three crops of corn are taken, and then the land is allowed to lie six years in grass, or lea. At the end of these, the farmer supposes that the lea is come to maturity, and fit again for being ploughed. When it is only two or three years old, it is called, in some parts of the country, calf-lea; and, if ploughed at that age, the roots are commonly very

abundant.

But the sowing land with grass-seeds, instead of turning it out into lea, destroys the roots of these weeds some years sooner. For a sward being hereby brought immediately upon the surface, the land becomes firm, the blades of the weeds are unable to pierce it, and the roots are deprived of air. Ryegrass-seed, or common hay-seed, is the most proper for this purpose. Clover, particularly broad clover, is improper; for the large roots of this open the soil in growing and extending themselves, and thereby prevent it from arriving at that degree of firmness necessary for destroying the weeds so soon as if no grass seeds had been

the

sown.

In regard to the second sort, they may be destroyed by turning the land infested with them from grass into tillage; and it is not necessary to continue it long in this situation, for the weeds commonly disappear after the first ploughing. But as it may be inconvenient to

turn a field infested with weeds from grass into tillage, or from tillage into grass; it is necessary to consider the methods of destroying these weeds, without altering the situation of the land. When land in tillage is infested with weeds, they may be destroyed by frequently stirring and turning it over in dry weather. For, the weeds being removed out of their places, the drought prevents them from striking root again. The stirring the land in wet weather is rather hurtful than beneficial: for though the roots of the weeds are removed from their places, yet the weeds themselves are only transplanted. If the land be wet, they soon strike afresh: the quickening-grass in particular, which, having its pastures enlarged, makes quicker progress than ever. But, if the land be dry, the weeds do not so easily strike root again: or, if some of them should strike, they continue for some time in a languishing condition, and, if removed out of their places while in that condition, are easily destroyed by the drought.

Where land is to be freed from seed-weeds, it cannot be made too fine, nor the surface too smooth; for the more perfectly this is done, the greater number of seeds are brought to vegetate. But, where it is to be freed from root-weeds, it cannot be turned up in too large masses, nor the surface left too rough: for the larger the masses and the rougher the surface, the drought has the easier access, and the roots are the more effectually destroyed.

A third sort of weed is found to infest both the land that is in tillage, and the land that is in grass. These have not only the blade and roots very strong, so as to be able to pierce the soil, though hard, but also of such a nature as makes it difficult to tear them up; or have their roots of such a kind, that they may be divided into a great number of plants. If the land be in grass, they may be destroyed by digging them out, or by frequently cutting them : and if in tillage, by frequently stirring and turning it over in dry weather. But this work must be performed with ploughs properly made for cutting their roots.

There is a fourth kind of weeds that chiefly infests land that is wet. Frequent cutting, and even digging out by the root, have been tried to destroy them, but to no purpose. They are not to be seen on dry land, and, when on land only inclining to be wet, appear very weak. Draining therefore seems to be the only method of destroying these.

All kinds of root-weeds, and perhaps many kinds of the seeds of weeds, may be destroyed by depriving them of air, as air is necessary not only to the vegetation, but also to the life of plants. And hence, when land is in tillage, the weeds may be deprived of air, either by burying them deep in the earth, or covering the surface. Trenching accomplishes the one, and a good crop of pease, potatoes, or any other plants that lie thick on the surface, effects the other.

2. Of the constituent principles of soils. In the article EARTH, we have observed that the simple substances passing under this name, are nine in number, lime, magnesia, baryt, and strontian, which have marks of alkalescency; and alumine, glycine, zircone, silex, and yttria, which are proper earths, as being destitute of all alkaline property.

Soils are formed by different combinations of two or more of these, often in connexion with a considerable portion of iron, existing in the form of an oxyd or calx. The earths that are usually traced in the composition of soils, are the following: alumina, or argil, lime, or calcareous earth, silex, or siliceous earth, and magnesia; and so seldom are the other earths found to enter into the composition of soils, and to so small an extent when they do enter, that we shall dismiss them without further observation.

Argil or alumine. This forms a large portion of the surface soil of most countries, and is also found in the mineral strata to a very great depth. It is no where found pure, but always more or less mixed with the different earths, and with other materials, such as mineral, vegetable, and animal matters. This earth is the most retentive of moisture of any, by which means it becomes ductile and tenacious; but loses these properties by the action of fire, and is converted into brick. It is the basis of the soil called

clay.

Lime, or calcareous earth. This substance constitutes in many countries not merely the surface or soil, but also the under stratum to a considerable depth. Under this general title may be included chalk, marble, limestone, coral, shells, &c. The three first are frequently mixed with iron, and with different proportions of the simple earths; but are considered as calcareous when the proportion of that earth predominates. This matter is capable of absorbing and retaining moisture, though in considerably less degree than clay. When sufficiently acted upon by fire it becomes lime, and returns again to the state of chalk or calcareous matter on being exposed for some time to the atmosphere.

Siler, sandy, flinty, or gravelly earth. Extensive tracts of the surface of the earth in different countries are of this kind; and large masses of the under stratum also consist of the same substance: the former in the state of loose sand, and the latter in an indurated or solid state, denominated sand-stone or free-stone. It is the least retentive of moisture of all the different earths.

Magnesia. This earth is no where found in such quantities as to form a soil of itself; but it is contained in various proportions in different soils, and forms a component part of steatites or soap rock. It is to a certain degree retentive of

moisture.

From these substances either in a simple or a more compound form, are derived the following soils, which are those most generally met with: clay, chalk, sand, gravel, loam, clayey loam, chalky loam, sandy loam, gravelly loam, ferruginous loam, boggy soil, and beathy soil.

Clay. This is of various colours, as white, grey, brownish-red, brownish-black, yellow, and blue; it feels smooth and somewhat unctuous; if moist it adheres to the fingers, and when suffaciently so becomes tough and ductile, as has been already observed. In its dry state it adberes more or less to the tongue; when thrown into water it gradually diffuses itself through it, and separates slowly from it. With acids it does not usually effervesce, unless a strong heat be ap. plied, or it should contain some calcareous particles, or magnesia.

The blue, the red, and the white clays, if strong, are said to be unfavourable to vegetation; but the stony and looser sorts much less so. However, none of them are valuable until their texture be loosened by a mixture of other substances, by which means other agents in vegetation are admitted to operate upon them. The proportions of argil or pure clay, sand, and ferruginous matter, which are commonly contained in this substance, are extremely various. The first is, however, generally in a very large proportion to the other two. Soils of this kind must therefore obviously be retentive of humidity, in proportion to the quantity of the argillaceous or principal ingredient.

Chalk; when not very impure, is of a white colour, moderate hardness, and dusty surface, soils the fingers, adheres slightly to the tongue, does not harden in heating, but in a strong fire burns to lime, and loses very considerably of its weight. It effer. vesces, and almost entirely dissolves in acids; but the solution is not disturbed by ammoniae or caustic volatile alkali. It promotes putrefaction in substances to which it is applied.

A soil of this kind, when little mixed with other substances, is always unproductive. It therefore requires a due admixture of other earths, and a proper quantity of vegetable and animal matters, in order to render it fertile and productive.

Sand. This substance is generally met with in small loose particles or grains, of considerable hardness, which do not cohere with water or become soft by it. It is most commonly of the silicious kind, and consequently insoluble in acids.

Gravel. The principal variation of this from the above substance is in the magnitude of the particles. Stones which are of a calcareous quality, when small and rounded in shape, are frequently comprehended under this appellation.

Soils which are principally constituted of these two substances are barren, and consequently require considerable labour and expense to improve or render them capable of producing good crops.

Loam. By this term is understood any soil which has a moderate degree of cohesion; that is, one which has less than clay and more than loose chalk. Some writers, however, give a different definition of it. The intelligent author of the Body of Agriculture calls it a clay mixed with sand; and by Hill it is said to be an earth composed of dissimilar particles, hard, stiff, dense, harsh, and rough to the touch, not easily ductile while moist, readily diffusible in water, and composed of sand with a tough viscid clay.

Clayey loam is that kind of compound soil in which, besides being moderately cohesive, the argillaceous ingredient predominates. Its coherence is consequently greater than that of any other loam, but still less than that of pure clay. The other substance of which it is composed is a coarse sand, with or without a slight mixture of calcareous matter. By those who are engaged in cultivating the ground, this is commonly denominated strong, stiff, cold, or heavy loam, in proportion to the quantity of clay which it contains.

Chalky loam is a term which denotes a compound soil, composed of clay, coarse sand, and

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